SYDNEY
ADVERTISEMENT.
Winchcombe, Carson & Co., Ltd.,
WOOLBROKERS,
Grain and Skin Salesmen, and
General Pastoralists' Agents. .
SELLING BROKERS ONI.V.
Head Office— BRIDGE STREET, SYDNEY.
Each Department Managed by a Member
of the Firm.
CASH ADVANCES WHERE REQUIRED.
WINCHCOMBE, CARSON & CO., LTD.
Australian
Sheep and Woof
A Practical & Theoretical Treatise
By .*,
Alfred Hawkesworth,*
i ;
Lecturer on "Sheep and Wool,"
Technical College, Sydney,
Edited by ...
R, N, Morris, LL.D.,
Superintendent of . . »
Technical Education, Sydney.
OF THE
UNI
IjjfRSITY
Sydney :
William Brooks and Co*,
Printers & Publishers.
J90Q*
ADVERTISEMENT.
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Tweed
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Blankets
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Our Plant is one of the
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PREFACE.
DURING the past few years a great many sheep-
breeders, wool-growers, and others connected with
the wool trade, have sought varied information relating
to sheep and wool. These, together with many other
inquiries, have given me great encouragement to compile a
work on " Australian Sheep and Wool." Up to the present
time the publications on these subjects are British, Continental,
and American, which are either too advanced, or deal with
sheep and wool upon a small scale, and, therefore, altogether
unsuitable for these colonies, where the industry is on a
much larger scale. In writing this work I have not made
any attempt to teach our most experienced sheep-breeders or
expert wool-buyers, but have sought to make it a source
of information to our smaller and struggling pastoralists and
graziers, and more especially to the young and future wool-
growers and the rising generation of wool-brokers and others.
With this object in view, I have written in the plainest
and simplest manner possible, so as to be easily understood
by all classes, and offer to the public generally a text book
on sheep and wool.
My grateful acknowledgments are due to R. N. Morris,
Esq., LL.D., Superintendent of Technical Education, for
the great interest he has taken in revising this work.
10944G
ADVERTISEMENT.
R JOHNSON, GLAPHAM& MORRIS
. . . LIMITED . . .
SYDNEY, MELBOURNE, MANCHESTER
AND LIVERPOOL.
GALVANISED CORRUGATED
HIGHEST QUALITY. SECOND TO NONE.
Accepted by all the Colonial Governments.
Johnson's " Resisted" Fencing Wire,
A new, very light, and strong oval steel wire ; very tough,
and extremely pliable. No. u guage.
Its strength is equal to that of a No. 7 ordinary Fence Wire,
whilst its weight per mile is less than HALF.
At comparative prices the saving is OVER F^ORTY PER CENT.
$£*- PLEASE SEND FOR SAMPLE.
COPY OF TESTIMONIAL.
Re JOHNSON'S "RESISTEEL" FENCING WIRE.
Dear Sirs,
Referring to your letter of oth April, I have just had erected about three
miles of G-wire fence, using the No. 11 G (Johnson's Wire as above), which you
sent me, and I find that it is not only a strong wire, but there is a saving of
certainly 3 cwt. in the mile, as compared with the ordinary No. 10 Wire.
The fence I speak of was well put up, and the straining carefully done. At
the time of its completion we had very severe frosts every night for a week or ten
days, and I did not find a single wire broken. This would not be the case with
ordinary wire.
The fencer, an old hand at the work, considers it the best wire he ever
used — and he has been fencing for the last 20 or 30 years — and he seemed sur-
prised that a wire of that guage should stand the strain, especially during the
cold weather I speak of.
I would certainly recommend the use of this wire.
This wire takes about 10 cwt. to the mile (6- wire fence).
No. 10 ordinary fencing wire takes 13 cwt.
(Signed) CYRIL BLOOMFIELD,
Manager, Terry Hie Hie Station,
MAKERS ^- Moree, July 15, 1899.
R. JOHNSON & NEPHEW, Bradford, Manchester.
PREFACE.
PREFACE.— Continued.
\ wish also to express my deep thanks to Mr. M. F.
Connelly, of the Technological Museum, Sydney, for the
great trouble he has taken in the re-production of the
illustrations; and to Mr. H. G. Smith, F.C.S., Tech-
nological Museum, for the analysis of the pure Australian
wool.
A. HAWKESWORTH.
ADVERTISEMENT.
VICTORIA
INSURANCE
COMPANIES.
Fire, IV|arine and Fidelity
Guarantee.
Fire and Marine Insurances Effected at Lowest Current
Rates.
MARINE Insurance at Current Rates.
WOOL Insured from Sheep's Back to Sydney or London.
FIDELITY GUARANTEE POLICIES
Issued to the Government, Banks, Public Companies,,
and Corporations.
INDEMNITIES to Private Sureties.
BONDS for the Administration and Liquidation of
Estates as required by the Supreme Court.
Offices: 83 PITT STREET,
FRED. J. JACKSON,
Resident Secretary.
CONTENTS
SHEEP.
PAGE
PAGE
African Sheep
30
Dorset Horn ...
119,
Age of Sheep...
28
,, Points ...
116
A Good Sheep
56
Wool ...
119
American Sheep
31-40
Downs Families
29,
Ancient History of
Sheep
35-45
European Sheep
29.
Asiatic Sheep...
Australian Sheep
30
5i
Flock Rams ...
Fine Merino ...
61
65
Border LeicesterSheep
„ ,, Points
„ Wool
88
88
9i
Hampshire
,, Points ...
Wool ...
112
112
H5
Cape Merinos...
Cheviot Sheep
,, Points...
,, Wool ...
41
96
96
96
How to Hold a Sheep
^ for the Judge
How to Open the Wool
when Judging a
Sheep
I24
127
Climate and Pasture...
Cotswold Sheep
33-38
81
How to Turn Up a
Sheep
125
,, Points
Wool
82
82
Judging Sheep
I76
Crossing for Mutton 208-209
Leicester
74-77
10
ADVERTISEMENT.
PAYABLE INVENTIONS for SQUATTERS, FARMERS, and
ALL AGRICULTURISTS.
Revolution in Wire Fencing ! Economy in Time !
Economy in Labour! Economy in Fencing Material!
FRONT VIEW OF TITAN. BACK VIEW. TRIPLEX.
The Latest and Most Improved Method of Straining Wire Fences.
field's Patent titan Wire Strainers
LIGHT, DURABLE, STRONG.
Wonderful, Simple, and Efficient. Cannot get out of Order.
A Portable Wire Strainer, which will not only strain at the post, but will mend and strain a
broken wire at any point of breakage, without allowing the- wire to slacken whilst being secured,
with the least expenditure of time and labour.
ADVANTAGES.— Strains wire ANYWHERE, either at post or midway ; makes the best knot,;
unrivalled power ; ease and freedom from annoyance ; and conveniently applied whenever it is
desired to strain wires or join them when under tension.
field's Patent triplex Wire Stretcher.
VERY SIMPLE, EFFECTIVE, AND CHE\P.
ABSOLUTELY COST NOTHING, because they pay their cost in the straining posts
they save.
They are a direct gain in time and labour, because no boring or straining post is required, and
they are so simple and easy that straining is done in one quarter the usual time, and being left
.permanently on the wires they can be slackened, etc., whenever desired.
They form cheap and convenient means for occasional Gateways, Openings, etc., to roads and
enclosures. The patent handle forms a private key by which the wires can be readily slackened and
thrown apart. The highest testimonials from all parts of the Colonies. Numerous First Awards at
Leading Exhibitions and Shows throughout the world.
Squatters, Farmers, and all persons fencing are asked to give these Strainers a trial. To be
obtained from all leading Ironmongers and Storekeepers.
When purchasing, obtain printed directions how to use with best effect.
AGENTS KOR N.S. WALES—
W. M. CAMERON & CO., 249 George Street, SYDNEY.
CONTENTS.
11
SHEEP.— Continued.
Leicester Points
PAGE
77
Scotch
PAGE
92
Wool
78
,, Points...
92
Lincoln
70
Scotch Wool ...
95
,, Points
70
Sheep Breeding
35
,, Wool
73
,, Show Ring ...
124
Medium Merino
65
Shropshire
104
Merino
44
,, Points
104
Merino in England ...
47
Wool
107
Merino Points
59
South Australia
54
„ Wool
60
South Downs...
IOO
Names given to 'dif-
ferent Breeds
,, Points
Wool...
IOO
IOO
Origin of the Name of
Merino
Overshot
Oxford Downs
,, Points
46
62
120
I 2O
Spanish
Strong Merino
Suffolk Downs
,, Points
Wool
42
66
1 08
1 08
i ii
,, Wool
123
Tasmanians ...
52
Queensland ...
54
Teeth
48
Rambouilett ...
49
Undershot ,
62
Romney Marsh
,, Points
„ Wool
84
84
87
Varieties
Victorian
29-30
84
Saxony
48
Zoological Character
25
12
ADVERTISEMENTS.
StationJook-kccping.
A Treatise on Double Entry Book-keeping:
For PASTORALISTS. * & & *
By FRANCIS ERNEST VIGARS.
The only work published which treats exclusively with Station Accounts.
Invaluable to Pastoralists, Stock-owners and Agriculturists, as it applies
Commercial methods of Book-keeping to their everyday transactions.
PRICE— Cloth, 3/6 ; Paper, 2/6. Postage 3d. extra.
WILLIAM BROOKS & CO.,
17 CASTLE RFAGH STREET, SYDNEY.
N.D.L
Regular Service to EUROPE.
from Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide
and 7 reman tie via Colombo, Jtden,
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L __._ . J Southampton, Jlntwerp and Bremen.
The Australian Fleet of the N. D. L. CO*, which is now the Largest in the
World, includes the following magnificent Twin-screw Steamers which are noted
for COMFORT and their great steadiness in all weathers . . .
Tons. Tons.
GROSSER KURFURST - 13,200 BREMEN - 10,525
BARBAROSSA - - - 10,767 FRIEDRICH der GROSSE - 10,531
KONIGIN LUISE - - 10,566 RHE1N - - - - 10,000
MAIN 10,000 PRINZ-REGENT LUITPOLD, 6,288
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Passage Money from £14 to £65 to London
China, Straits and Ne^w Guinea Service every 6 weeks, via Queens-
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For full Particulars apply to ...
WEBER, LOHMANN & CO.,
EXCHANO : CORNER. GENERAL. AGENTS,
63 PITT STREET, SYDNEY. NORD-DEUTSCHER LLOYD.
CONTENTS.
13
WOOL.
PAGE
PAGE
A Fleece of Wool
... 147
Clear
163-172
Apron ...
... 171
Cleamers
154
Atrophy
... 183
Cleansing Wool
. . . 246
Bad Shearing
... 198
Cloudy
••• 173
Bad Breeding
... 174
Clothing Wool
157
Binders
... 153
Cloth-finishing
... 258
Binders and the
Age
Colour...
... 1 66
of Sheep
... 195
Combing Wool
154
Black Wool ...
... 1 86'
Composition of Wool
Blending
... 283
i 33- ! 34
Body
... 1 68
Condensing ...
..:' 285
Branding Sheep
... 199
Condition
... 184
Break in Wool
... 182
Counts
... 158
Brightness
... 1 86
Cotty . . .
... 1 80
Brittle
.•• 175
Cottony
... 174
Broad-haired ...
190
Crape ...
... 173
Brown ...
... 1 86
Crimps...
... 163
Brown-Grey ...
... 1 86
Crutchings
... 181
Burry ...
... 178
Cropping
... 290
Burring
... 282
Curly ...
... 175
Curvy ...
163-4-5
Canary...
... 250
Cast
... 177
Deep-grown . . .
... 170
Carding
... 284
Density
... 167-8
Chalky
... 185
Depth
... 171
Character
... 162
Defective Colours
... 187
14
ADVERTISEMENT.
Is the
CHEAPEST
and
BEST HOUSE for
PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Of Every Description.
Save Money
by Purchasing
a Reliable and Perfect Piano,
such as the following, which
are constructed of the Best
seasoned Materials, and have
the Most Improved Actions,
and, furthermore contain
sModern Improvements
in Construction
STEHKWflY
BR1NSMEHD
LIPP (The Genuine R. Lipp & Sohn),
Uebel & Lechleiter, Julius Feurieh, Carl Ecke, Gors & Kallman,
The Victor, and " Belling1."
W. H. PALMTCO., LTD.,
Established 1853. — ~
PALING & CO., Ltd.
are able to give the Best Value owing to the
immense number they sell. Their present
enormous trade is owing to wonderful value,
also to the fact that the Pianos give unusual
satisfaction, even in most trying parts of
Queensland. Pianos may be bought for Cash,
or are supplied to any part of the Colony on
East Time Payments, from 20/- Monthly.
PALING & CO.'S
usual immense stock has lately been aug-
mented by the arrival of several large ship-
ments, and is now exceptionally complete.
338 GEORGE ST., SYDNEY,
CONTENTS.
15
— Continued.
PAGE
PAGE
Different Qualities of
Freedom of Growth ...
167
Wool in the same
Sheep
Dingy ...
Dog Hair
Draught
Drawing
191
189
176
169
292
Fribs
Fribby...
Frothy
Fuzzy ...
Fulling
1 80
1 86
173
178
288
Duties of a Wool-
Gare
176
classer
227
Grey
i£6
Earthy...
177
Gritty
177
Effeminate
I71
Haslock
176
Elasticity
165
Harsh
175
Evenness
167
Heating Water
258
Fast
Fastening Fleeces
181
231
Hints to Shearing-shed
Managers ...
Hints to Selectors and
179
Fatty
184
Farmers
204-7
Faulty Wools...
172
Hosiery Wool
190
Feathery
Fellmongering on
Stations
173
272
How to Roll a Fleece
to Advantage... 229-30
How to Test Wool ... 193
Felting Property
280
Hungry Wool
i78
Fineness
162
Hygiene
190
First Demi
185
Hypertrophy ...
184
Flexibility
Fluffy ...
165
T73
Kemp ...
176
Folds ...
171
Length and Depth ...
192
Free
167
Locky ...
175
16
ADVERTISEMENT
CONTEXTS.
17
Lofty . . .
Lustre ...
Masculinity ..
Moits
Mongrel Wool
Mushv ..
PAGE
1 80
177
181
New Process of Wool-
pulling ... ... 271
Noils ... ... ... 156
Names of Cloths . . . 293
Oakum-like ... ... 176
Oiling ... 283
Overfine ... ... 172
Overgrown ... ... 283
Pasty 184
Piece-picking... ... 232
Pressing ... ... 290
Quality ... 157
Regularity ... ... 167
Rich 171
Robustness .... ... 184
Sappy ... ... 124
Serrations ... 142-281
Scoured Pieces
Seedv ... ..
... 185
77
PAGE
Shafty 169
Shankings ... ... 177
Sheep Marking ... 283
,, Skins ' 274
Shivey... ... ... 181
Shrinkage ... ... 178
Silkiness ... ... 169
Sliver ... 156
Softness ... ... 166
Sorting English ... 246
,, Belly Pieces 234
,, for Scouring 250
Sour ... 189
6o's Merino Tops ... 158
Spinning ... 285-292
,, Tables of
Counts or Qualities
159-160-161
Stained ... ... 189
Staple of Wool ... 153
Straight Fibred ... 124
Stringy ... ... 175
Structure of the Skin 120
Technical Terms used
when Classing 213-214
Technical Terms used
when Sorting English 245
18 ADVERTISEMENT.
J. B, MACLAURIN,
Shearing gomractor,
"?f^
39 HUNTEK STKEET,
HAYING taken over in its entirety the business oi HACKETT AND
WEBSTER, lately trading as HAOKETT AND MACLAURIN, Shearing
Contractors, at 6 Spring Street (vide extract S.M. Herald, 16th
February, 1900, at foot), Pastoralists may rest assured nothing will
be wanting on my part to give every satisfaction in the fulfilment of
Contracts entered into by me.
^t&ggpgPl WRITE FOR
TERMS MODERATE. WiF TESTIMONIALS.
NOTICE is hereby given that the undersigned EVELYN PRENDERGAST
HACKETT and LAUCHLAN MACKINNON WEBSTER, heretofore
carrying on business as Shearing Contractors under the style of ' ' Hackett
and Maclaurin," have this day ASSIGNED all their interest in the Goodwill,
Assets, Machinery, and Business to the undersigned JAMES B. MACLAURIN,
who will henceforth carry on the same on his own account, and in his own name,
at the Office of the late firm, No. 6 Spring Street, Sydney. Dated this thirteenth
day of February, 1900. LAUCHLAN M. WEBSTER, E. P. HACKETT, J. B.
MACLAURIN. Witness to the signatures Evelyn Prendergast Hackett and
Lauchlan Mackinnon Webster, MELB. J. MACNAMARA, Solicitor, Sydney ;
and to signature of J. B. Maclaurin, ROBERT SMITH, Solicitor, Sydney.
'
Simplicity" Patent Pollard Distributor,
FOR DESTROYING RABBITS.
Tnn BEST MACHINE IN THE MARKET.
Agent: J. B. MACLAURIN.
N.B. — Correspondence Invited.
CONTENTS.
19
WOOL.— Continued.
PAGE
Technical Terms used
when Sorting ... 239
Technical Terms when
Sorting Merino 240-241
Teasling ... ... 289
Tenderness ... ... 167
Thread-like ... ... 174
Tips ... ... ... 148
,, of Flock Sheep... 151
Trueness ... ... 167
PAGE
Unsoundness ... ... 182
Weaving ... ... 286
Wool ... ... .129-143
,, Fibre ... ... 142
,, ,, Cross Sec-
tion Merino 143-144
Wool Combing ... .290
,, Scouring ... 251
Yolk ... 145
Yield .,. ... 179
20 ADVERTISEMENT.
Lysagbt's
Galvanized *Tron.
TRADE MARKS-
CORRUGATED IRON : PLAIN IRON:
0KB. QUEEN'S HEAD.
REDCLIFFE. FLEUR DE LIS.
The BEST is the CHEAPEST.
Every Sheet Guaranteed
OBTAINABLE EVERYWHERE.
MAKERS
John Cysagbt, Limited,
BRISTOL, WOLVERHAMPTON,
NEWPORT, AND LONDON.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Atrophy
PAGE
183
Border Leicester Ram 89
,, ,, Wool 91
Cheviot Ram ... ... 97
,, Wool 96
Cotswold Ram ... 80
Wool ... 82
Curves 163
Dorset Horn Ram ... 117
,, Wool ... 1 19
Effects of Too Hot
Water on Wool ... 258
Fine Merino W^ool ... 65
Growth of Wool ... 133
Hampshire Downs
Ram .113
Hampshire Downs
Wool 115
Hypertrophy ... ... 184
Leicester Ram ... 75
Wool ... 78
Lincoln Ram... ... 71
,, Wool ... 73
Merino Stud Ram ... 58
Wool 60
PACK
Merino Wool Medium 66
Oxford Downs Ram... 121
,, Wool 123
Ram to be Avoided ... 63
Romney Marsh Ram 85
,, Wool 87
Scotch Black Face
Ram 93
Scotch Black Face
Wool 95
Section of Skin ... 131
Sheep Brand ... ... 201
Shropshire Downs
Ram 105
Shropshire Downs
Wool 107
South Down Ram ... 101
,, Wool ... loo
Specimens of First
Australian Wools... 129
Strong- Merino Wool 68
Suffolk Downs Ram 109
Wool in
Tips or Exterior Form-
ation of Staples ... 140
Wool Fibre 142
,, Cross Sec-
tion Merino... ... 143
Wool Fibre Cross Sec-
tion Lincoln ... 144
ADVERTISEMENT.
TOXA .
The Deadly Rabbit Poison.
is a Poisoned Jam which is
eaten by RABBITS only. . .
No Danger to Stock, as they will not touch it.
has an enormous sale in New Zealand, where it was first introduced,
the testimony to its effects being remarkable, and leaving no doubt
as to its deadly results.
Exterminates more, surely than Phosphorised
fipain, and no Bisk of Fires.
In 2H>. Tins. Price, 2 per Tin, Post Free 2/11.
SPECIAL PRICES FOR QUANTITIES.
We can supply ^TC>I3KJflk. in any Quantity
throughout the Colony.
AUSTRALIAN DRUG COMPANY,
Limited,
19 & 21 O'Connell Street,
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
MERINO SHEEP (1829).
MERINO RAM
THE SHEEP.
ZOOLOGICAL CHARACTER.
SHEEP, as to their position in the Animal Kingdom,
belong to the ruminating order, or cud-chewers. They
have front teeth in the lower jaw only, which are
opposed to a tough pad or insensible substance in the upper
jaw. There are six molar teeth in the sides of the upper and
lower jaws, which are adapted to act as grinders. They have
four stomachs, and these, with the gullet, are so constructed
that the food is returned for rumination.
In the Capridas, or goat family, the horns, when
they are found, are permanent, and are placed on a vascular,
bony foundation. The horn as it grows shows great irregu-
larity, taking the form of ringlets at the base. These
irregularities are in the shape of deep indents and ridges
around the horn, each denoting a year's growth. The general
structure of the Capridae is light, and generally adapted for
fleetness ; and they are very sure-footed. The ears usually
stand erect, and are funnel-shaped ; the pupils of the eye are
oblong ; the teeth have more of a square tip than a
canine or pointed shape.
The Genus Ovis is another kind, and may or may not
have horns, but when present they take a more or less
spiral shape. The outline of the face is convex ; there is no
respiratory opening under the eye. The nostrils are
lengthened, and terminate without a muzzle. It differs from
the Capridae in having no beard. The body is covered with
very short hair, with a soft, downy wool underneath, and when
in their domesticated state this wool prevails over the hair. The
legs are slight, yet strong and firm, but perfectly free from
bunches of hair. Of these there are three varieties, viz., Ovis
Ammon, or Argali ; the Ovis Musmon, or Musmon; and the
26 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
Ovis Aries, or Domestic Sheep. The latter will receive most
of our attention for some time. The Ovis and the
Caprida? resemble each other to a great extent. The
differences between them are chiefly these : — Many sheep are
without horns, but when present take a spiral or curved form,
whilst those of the goat have an upward and backward
direction. The forehead of the sheep is convex, or swelling
externally in a spherical form, that of the goat being concave,
or hollow, without angles. The sheep in its domestic state
has nothing resembling a beard ; but the goat is bearded.
There is one species of goat, the Cashmere goat, which,
when it is thoroughly domesticated and improved, produces
a wool finer than any wool grown upon a sheep. This
growth is mostly covered with hair, while the hair on the
sheep by domestication may be reduced to a few kemps, or
can be got rid of altogether. Finally, the pelt, or skin, of
the goat is much thicker than that of the sheep.
The names given to sheep are different in various
countries. The general name of a male sheep is ram, in
some places tup ; while with his mother, a ram lamb, some-
times in England, a hieder or pur-lamb. From the time of
his weaning until shorn he is a hogget in this country, whilst
in England he is called a hog, hogget, hoggerel, or teg. If
castrated, the name is a wether hogget. If a sheep has been
shorn as a lamb, then, after the first full fleece is cut off, it is
called a shurled hogget. After the first full fleece has been
shorn from an unsexed sheep, he is always a wether. Wedder
is the name given to a sheep which has grown a full fleece
before he is castrated. The female is a ewe lamb, or is some-
times called a gimmer lamb until it is weaned ; afterwards,
ewe hogget, hog, teg, or shedder ewe. After shearing she is
a ewe or gimmer, while we call her a two-tooth ewe ; after-
wards she is named, according to age, four-tooth, six-tooth,
eight-tooth, full-mouth, and broken mouth. The age of sheep
is not reckoned from the time they are born, but from the
first shearing ; they, up to that time, are first lambs, then
THE SHEEP. 7
weaners, and hoggets. When the sheep show two broad
teeth, they are considered to be in their second year, although
many begin to show these two teeth when a little over ten
months old. What we understand when a sheep has two
broad teeth in the centre is that it is over 12 months, but
under 24 months, old. When we have any doubt about the
age of a sheep, we always look in the mouth, and so deter-
mine the age ; and this is the only safe way to decide. Many
take the horn into consideration, but are likely to be deceived,,
more especially in the ewes. We will, for instance, take a
young ewe which has produced a lamb. Her horns, if any, will
always make her appear a year older than she really is,
having a ring more than a ewe of the same age which has
not had a lamb. It has been said that the sheep has no teeth
in the upper jaw, but they have a substitute in the shape of
riftges or bars, which thicken as they approach the fore part
of the mouth. These ridges are composed of dense, tough,
fibrous, elastic matter, which forms a bed or cushion on the
extremity of the upper jaws, and stands as a substitute for
the cutting teeth. The herbage is firmly held between the
front teeth of the lower jaw and this tough bar on the upper
jaw, and is partly bitten and partly torn away. The number
of teeth is the same in the sheep as in the ox, viz., eight
incisor or cutting teeth in the fore part of the lower jaw, and
six molars or grinders in the upper and lower jaws on
both sides. The cutting teeth are better adapted for the
purpose of grazing than those of the ox. The sheep nip
much closer than the ox, and can live where the other would
starve, and can, in fact, find a good living where the ox could
not possibly get a nip or blade of grass. This is one reason
why sheep improve any pasture in which they are placed,
because by the close biting and partial tearing they cause the
roots to become loose, and this tends to make them spread ;
and by cutting off the loose suckers and sproutings cause the
plant to throw out fresh, stronger, and more numerous ones,
which both improve and increase the value of the crop. The
28 AUSTRALIAN 55HEEP AND WOOL.
formation of the upper lip of the sheep greatly assists in this,
it being deeply divided and free from hair about the
centre, thus enabling it to get closer to the ground.
TEETH.
The lamb when born is either without incisor teeth,
or has only one. The teeth grow very rapidly, and before
it is a month old it has eight teeth, which are called
SUCKING TEETH. They continue to grow with the growth
-of the lamb until it is sometimes 16 months old.
Generally speaking, at the age of 12 months the two
central teeth fall out, and are replaced by two larger ones,
which continue to grow until the sheep is about 24 months
•old. From the time it begins to show these two larger
centre teeth the sheep is called a TWO-TOOTH, and is in its
second year. Teeth differ very much in different sexes,
health also having much to do with their state and growth,
.also good or bad, rich or sandy pastures; for, whenever sheep
are on bare or gritty soils, their teeth show signs of wear
much sooner than those feeding on richer soils. Shortly
after 24 months old, and considerably before 36 months,
the two teeth next and outside each of the two large centre
teeth are shed, and their places taken by two additional
large ones, and are fully developed when the sheep is
36 months old, when it is called FOUR-TOOTH. When four
years old there are six large broad teeth, when the sheep
is called a SIX-TOOTH. At five years all the sucking teeth
are gone or shed, and the mouth is full, when the sheep
is called FULL-MOUTHED, there being now eight fully-
developed teeth. After this there is no certainty as to
the age of the sheep, and all are called aged sheep, and
begin generally to decline. The age which sheep may attain
is difficult to assign. Many will live and thrive up to 10
years old, but they must have had good treatment. Of
the molar teeth there is not much to say, but they act as
grinders for reducing the food to pulp.
THE SHEEP. 29'
VARIETIES OF SHEEP.
There are a great many different varieties of sheep,
which naturally yield a great many types of wool, and
can be divided into two great families — the Long and
Short Wools. All other grades are but varieties of these
two families, the result of crossing, assisted by climate and
pasture. These families can be further divided into four
groups.
I. EUROPE.
The Spanish Merino, comprising Chunah, Escurial,,
Estantantes, Transhumantes, and seven other
varieties, viz., Merino, Leonese, Negretti,
Escurial, Guadaloupe, Paular, Infantado.
The French Merino, named the Rambouillet.
The Saxony Merino.
The Prussian Merino.
The Silesian Merino.
The Hungarian Merino.
The Hanoverian Merino.
The Russian Merino.
The Austrian Merino.
The Swedish Merino.
The Danish Merino.
The Italian Merino.
The British Domestic Sheep, comprising Lincoln,
Leicester, Cotswold, North Devon, Yorkshire,
Nottingham, Romney Marsh, Border Leicester,
Cheviot, Bedford, Gloucester, Derby, Exmore,
Hardwick, Pentston, Stafford, Somerset, Wor-
cester, Devon, Ryelands, Hereford, Corn-
wall, Wensleydale, Dartmoor, Limestone.
The Downs Families —
South Down.
Shropshire.
Hampshire.
Wiltshire.
30 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
EUROPE— /The Downs Families (Continued).
Oxford.
Suffolk.
Sussex.
Norfolk.
Other Breeds-
Welsh Mountain.
The Irish.
Black Face Scotch.
Lonk, Shetland.
The Cretan Sheep.
The Crimean.
II. ASIA.
Hooniah, or Black-faced Sheep of Tibet.
Cajo, or Cabul Sheep.
Nepaul Sheep.
Mysore Sheep.
Indian Sheep.
Deccan Sheep.
Chinese Sheep.
Broad-tailed Sheep.
Hindostan Sheep.
Tartary Sheep.
Barwell Sheep.
Short-tailed of Russia.
III. AFRICA.
Smooth-haired Sheep.
Cape Sheep.
Guinea Sheep.
Zeylan Sheep.
Fezzan Sheep. ^
Congo Sheep.
Yenu, or Goitered Sheep.
Madagascar Sheep.
Bearded Sheep.
Morocco Sheep.
THK SHEEP. 31
IV. AMERICA.
American Merino.
Canadian.
West Indian.
South American Merino.
Brazilian Merino.
•
NAMES GIVEN TO DIFFERENT SHEEP.
x
The names given to sheep vary in different countries.
In these COLONIES, they are, in the Merinos :—
RAM. — A male sheep.
RAM LAMB. — A young unweaned male sheep.
STAG. — A matured ram castrated, known here sometimes
as a wedder.
RIGG. — A young male sheep that has not been properly,
or only half, castrated.
WETHER. — A castrated male sheep.
WETHER HOGGET.— A castrated male sheep, so called
till showing two centre broad teeth.
SHURLED HOGGET.— A young sheep till showing two
centre broad teeth, and which has been shorn as a lamb.
Relates to either male or female.
EWE. — A female sheep.
STUD EWE. — A pure-bred ewe, kept for breeding stud
stock.
FLOCK EWE. — A female sheep of the ordinary or common
class, running in large mobs without any special attention.
WET EWE. — A ewe suckling its lamb.
DRY EWE. — A ewe not in lamb.
MAIDEN EWE. — A young ewe not put to a ram.
EWE LAMB. — A young female sucking sheep.
PODDY. — A lamb having lost its mother, and stunted in
growth.
:*2 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH NAMES.
MALE. — Ram or tup.
HOG, HOGGET, HOGGEREL. — From the time of weaning
to ist shearing.
SHEARLING — Dinmont tups, or one shear tups. After
ist shearing1 to 2nd.
TWO-SHEAR RAMS. — From 2nd to 3rd shearing.
THREE ,, ,, ,, 3rd to 4th ,,
FOUR ,, „ ,, 4th to 5th
HE TEG. — A castrated male from the time of weaning to
ist shearing.
SHEAR HOG WETHER. — After ist shearing to 2nd
shearing.
WETHER TEG. — Used mostly in connection with the
Down breeds, and is a castrated male sheep to the ist
shearing.
EWE. — A female sheep.
EWE TEG. — A female sheep up to ist shearing.
GIMMER. — A Scotch name given to a female sheep after
the ist shearing.
BARREN GIMMER. — A ewe sheep not in lamb between
ist and 2nd shearing.
EILD GIMMER. — A female sheep not put to a ram.
YELD Ewe. — A name given to a ewe after she has
suckled her lamb.
DRAFT EWE. — An ordinary flock ewe of any age.
CROSSBRED. - - The progeny, the result of couping ;
different breeds of sheep.
HALF-BRED. -- The descendants of two pure breeds of
sheep.
COMEBACK. — The offspring of two pure sheep of different
breeds, mated with a sheep of the same breed as one of the
parents, will produce a comeback. Take a half-bred Leicester
merino ewe, and put her to a merino ram ; the result will be
a coming back on to the merino, being three-quarter merino
THE SHEEP. 33
.and one-quarter Leicester. What is understood as a come-
back in these colonies is obtained by using a pure -bred
English sheep with a merino, and breeding back on to the
merino.
MONGREL. — When a ram of mixed breeds is put to a
•ewe of mixed breeds, the progeny is called a mongrel. For
instance, take a crossbred Lincoln-Romney Marsh ram, and
put to a merino-Leicester ewe ; the descendant will be a
mongrel, or a mixture of many breeds.
CLIMATE AND PASTURAGE.
The pastoral industry of Australasia up to within the
last ten years was a much more profitable investment than at
the present time, as rents and taxes were much lighter than in
recent years, which, together with the greater value of wool,
made the life of a squatter comparatively easy and comfortable.
In those years there was little science required, not half the
judgment necessary, as one did not need to be so particular
as to the type of sheep he should husband. Now, all this
has changed, until it behoves all who are embarked in the
profession — which it now certainly is — to give serious
•consideration to the varied circumstances required to obtain
the best results.
In years gone by, a pastoralist could afford to become
•the owner of a breed of sheep according to his own fancy.
Yes, and make it pay. Now that fancy would spell ruination,
which, indeed, it has done in a very great many cases.
To be successful in the growing of wool, the first
consideration is to study climate and temperature in that
particular district where the pastoralist has cast his lot. In
Australasia especially, through its varied climates and
temperatures, the first and most important question deserves
far greater study than it usually receives, as different types
.and breeds of sheep will thrive and give satisfactory results
where others will degenerate in every possible way, both in
IU AlSIKAllAN SllKKP A N P \\OO1.
carcass and \\ool. Take, for instance, the tine woolled merino
sheep, place them on the open, unsheltered Western Plains*
and their fleeces will gradually become lighter and lighter^
until there is \ crv little left but a thin, delicate fleece, weigh-
ing J, v}, or j,lbs., of little monetary value, worth, say, from
2S. to 2S. 6d. per fleece, which is not by any means a pay in g
price, especially \\hen this type of sheep leaves a lis^ht carcase
for the butcher when they arrive at a fattening age. Such is
the effect upon line \\oolled sheep on these open, dustv, and
sunny plains. On the other hand, place the stronger merino
in the district, with its more robust nature and type, and
altogether better suited to resist the damaging conditions of
that climate, and the difference will be very palpable. We
should tind large, healthv fleece^, comparativelv speaking,
uninjured by the hot, dusty, climatic influences, and the
weight of wool per sheep would be found, under careful
management, to be from 7 toSlbs., whilst there would be a
good, large, marketable animal left when the -wool-producing
properties began to fail. Kxperience within the last few
years has taught much. By strict observation, various
districts have been proved to be specially favourable to
certain breeds. Hence we tind many of the old flocks
replaced by a different breed of more suitable type. Fake,
for instance, the celebrated Kiverina district, with its open,
exposed plains, with little or no shelter from the sun and
wind. There are now to be found there the most perfect
strong wool led merino sheep, whilst the tiner-woolled sheep
get fewer and fewer, and it is even doubtful if there is a truly
fine-wool led sheep in the district. Of course, there is the tine
Riverina type, but it cannot be classed with the tine \\oolled
sheep from Tasmania, Mudgee, and New Kngland. To
further illustrate the effect climate has on the production of
\\ool, we need only consider the great failure of the Spanish
merino sheep when they were introduced into Kngland.
The climate did its \\ork most effectually, and, whilst
the merino failed, other breeds prospered. Or, again*
86
consider the sheep in Turkey in Asia, and all in the Don
district. There we find the climate tends to change wool into
hair of a bright lustrous nature, whilst the hair thrown in that
part of the world has no equal in any other part, either for
the purity of colour or silkiness of its texture. The Angora
goat, which provides the celebrated mohair, is found in a state
of perfection in those localities, and if moved to other climes
gradually degenerates ; the wool loses its brilliancy of
colour, and softness of texture. Not only does climate affect
animals, but also determines the manufacture of many kinds
of goods, some districts being better adapted for the production
of wool for the making of certain classes of goods than others.
SHEEP-BREEDING.
Sheep, above all other animals, are the most susceptible
of improvement, even if only moderate treatment is meted out
to them. From time immemorial, when this most useful
animal became associated with mankind, there were signs
of a marked improvement in the ungainly shaped body,
whilst the hairy covering was gradual ly changed into a kind
of soft fibre of improved structure and texture. Ancient
history further tells us how, in very early times, improvements
were made, even in the colour of the covering of the sheep.
We read of the Patriarch Jacob, when a shepherd under
Laban, how he brought a change in the colour of the wool of
the younger sheep of his flocks, solely by scientific breeding
from black to speckled, or a kind of streaky fleece. The
story of this changing of wool from the original colour, black,
into variegated speckled fleeces may be interesting, and serve
as an object lesson to many of the younger members of the
pastoral industry, also to others who are inclined to take
risks or chances in the management of their flocks. Jacob, in
his early youth, was of an industrious disposition, and
travelled in pursuit of work. After many long journeys he
happened one day to arrive at a well where sheep and cattle
36 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
were regularly watered ; towards evening a large flock of
sheep arrived for watering, in charge of a young woman
named Rachael ; as the water had to be drawn, Jacob offered
his services to draw for the flock. This kind consideration
on the part of Jacob was the prelude to future success in life,
and was the means of an introduction to Laban, Rachael's
father. Jacob soon became Laban's shepherd, and by
industry and general perseverance soon became one of the
family. Eventually there arose a kindly attachment between
Rachael and Jacob, who, in due course, were married. Jacob,
after serving Laban fourteen years, was desirous of returning
home, but was induced by Laban to stay and superintend
his flocks under different terms to the former arrangements ;
wages were to be paid in sheep, and Jacob was to have all the
sheep that were not of one colour. The flock given to Jacob
to tend was entirely black, all one colour, and to all
appearances Jacob's chances to breed sheep with speckled or
mixed wool were small. Jacob, being of an experimenting
disposition, and thoroughly practical as well, devised plans,
and tried scientific sheep-breeding, and was successful to
such an extent that Laban was alarmed. This was done
by making white streaks on the fences of the yards and
watering-troughs, where all the sheep were folded together,
rams and ewes. These folds are where the coupling mostly
takes place, and as the sheep were mating, the strange, streaky
appearance of the troughs and fences that they were impressed
with the novel sight, and when the lambs were born they
had a streaky or speckled wool. By this scientific move
Jacob changed the colour of the offsprings of Laban's original
flock, which colour, by agreement, became the property
of Jacob. It is quite evident that Laban soon found out that
there was a great danger of losing his sheep, so he willingly
allowed Jacob to depart to his relatives, now possessing large
flocks of sheep. It is recorded that a flock had been changed
from dark to white by placing flocks, when in season, in
yards where there was a superabundance of white. Jacob's
THE SHEEP. 37
experience serves as a great object lesson, and if sheep
in those early days could be improved to such an extent,
surely it is not too much to say that, with all the experiments
going on at the present day, the breeders have a much
easier task than in the olden days. Even in the wool-
growing history of these colonies there is a good
example set by the earlier settlers, who had everything
against them ; they were then only at the experimenting
stage.
If our pastoralists would only half follow their example,
there would be very few inferior flocks in the colonies. The
pioneers had to take what sheep they could get from the few
ships calling at the ports, but with them they made a noble
start. Considering the great distance from Europe, and the
means of communication, the rapid advance is all the more
startling. It is a little above a century ago when sheep
were unknown in this continent. The first importations
were of such inferior types as to give one the idea that they
were totally incapable of any improvement. They were thin,
narrow, long-legged, flat-sided, razor-backed sheep, with
covering more like hair than wool, samples of which may be
seen in the Technological Museum, Sydney. This was the
miserable foundation on which to build such a gigantic
industry, which was only brought about by patience,
perseverance, and good judgment, greatly assisted by natural
causes through climate and pasture. No one can gainsay
that the climate and pastures of these colonies have no equal
in any part of the world, and it may be safely said that
Australia was made for the sheep, and sheep for Australia.
There is no climate and pasturage which render such
encouragement to sheep and wool cultivation, and it is hoped
that still greater advantage will be taken of these gifts of
Nature, which are especially helpful to those who are
struggling for a footing. Such object lessons as the
foregoing should serve to encourage the pastoralists of to-day,
who will find it much easier to improve their flocks than was
38 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
the case in the days of the early settlers. There is nothing
required in connection with sheep-breeding and wool-growing
that cannot be purchased according to a man's means. He can
buy without going through the experimental stages, making a
start where many have been ruined. With careful and
judicious selection it is surprising how soon a flock of inferior
sheep can be bred to a good standard for wool and mutton,
which are really the main features to be considered. To
be successful in a general way it is not necessary to aim
at the highest class of sheep, but cultivate a useful and
serviceable lot, large-framed and well covered with wool.
No flock will pay to grow wool alone, but size of carcass
must be cultivated also, and the two must necessarily go hand
in hand, so that when the wool-producing properties begin to
fail and to give unsatisfactory results, there will be something
to sell to the butcher. It is acknowledged that there are three
different types of merinos, fine, medium, and strong, and
each of these is adapted to a particular climate and pasture,
and will give the best results when properly placed in
this respect.
Fine merinos are best adapted to country of a basaltic
formation, and are mostly met with in the Eastern Division of
this colony, where fine, short grasses and herbage grow.
These important features, together with a generally dry,
bracing air, make the surroundings what might be called
an ideal home for the fine wools. The medium merinos,
which constitute the major portion of our flocks, require a
richer country, where the feed is more copious and of a
stronger nature and the climate temperate. Being a larger-
bodied and more robust sheep than the fine, it naturally
requires more abundant feed to keep up the body and
covering.
The strong merino is more at home on the open,
exposed, dusty, and unsheltered plains country, especially
in the Western District of this colony, and this applies also
THE SHEEP. 39
to similar country in the colonies, Queensland, South
Australia, and Westralia. This sheep should be larger,
.stronger, more masculine in frame, bone, and covering.
The robustness of its wool (being so constituted as to
resist the hot, dusty country), together with its aptitude to
feed on coarser grasses and herbage, makes the strong merino
by far the best sheep for those conditions. Always avoid
a small merino sheep with strong wool, as this type is
unnatural, and by using it the size of the body in the
offspring is liable to be reduced. English breeds, and even
crossbreds, have their proper places.
The Lincoln, Leicester, and Cotswold require heavy,
rich, agricultural land, with plenty of feed and water. The
Romney Marsh or Kent sheep, above all other breeds,
are best suited to any swampy or low-lying country, as
they resist footrot and fluke to a greater extent than any other
breed, and will be a success under such conditions when
-other breeds fail. The English middle breeds require
good, well-drained agricultural pastures, being gross heavy
feeders.
The different Downs families, of all English breeds,
stand the most hardships in a dry country, and come next to
the merino for travelling. In adverse seasons they will stand
a pinch, and will not. be affected so seriously as the
heavier English breeds. These useful sheep, under liberal
feeding, give the best results, as early maturers, even in a
temperate climate and fair average country, as mostly found in
the Eastern Division of this colony. There is not so much
risk in sheep-breeding and wool-growing as formerly, thanks
to the great object lessons practically illustrated by many of
the more wealthy owners and capable managers of the present
day. These practical pastoralists, by their experience, have,
by frequent changes of the merino type, found what is
best suited to particular pastures and climates. This is
fortunate for those who are not amongst the wealthy class,
also for those who are only embarking in the sheep and wool
40 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
growing industry. These have only to copy the most
successful experimenters. This cheap information, which to-
a beginner is everything, enables him at the outset to see
what sheep are best adapted to his conditions as regards
pasture and climate, and pasture must take first place.
Seeing that climate and pasture form the backbone of
the pastoral industry, it is admitted that for growing
commercial wool, or wool of the ordinary flock, it is
necessary to keep to one type, that which gives the best
results in wool and size of sheep, and not try, as many have
done, to keep pace with fashion, which is very fickle and
continually changing.
How often have flocks and owners been ruined by
introducing fresh strains or types quite unsuitable for the
purpose. After a time, but when too late, the owners find
out that the original type is destroyed, the crossing has
not nicked, as it is called, and the result is a miserable
failure. By the time a flock has been crossed to produce
a wool suitable for the fashion, that fashion has changed, and
another comes in. A few years ago the rage was for
crossbreds, and scores of station-holders went madly into the
change, and, not knowing the breeds, bought any kind of
sheep called coarse-woolled, resulting in complete failure,
producing a mongrel wool as well as mutton. Many have
tried to follow fashion in the merinos, with the same result.
Finding the right type, keeping to it, and cultivating it
thoroughly, is far better than changing and shifting about.
Every district has its type, and with careful culling and
classing, however faulty a flock may be, it can be vastly
improved, both in covering and formation. There is a great
tendency amongst many sheep-breeders to give the greatest
consideration to the rams, evidently believing, for want of
better judgment or knowledge, that to have good or fair
rams means the high road to success. How often do we see
breeders at our annual stud sheep sales purchasing any and
almost all the different strains of merino rams to use in their
THE SHEEP. 41
flocks? One cannot conceive the idea that he is going
to preserve his type by using so many different breeds or
strains. It would be most interesting information if we could
only get to know the results of 50 per cent, of the rams
bought in Sydney during the yearly sheep sales. It is more
than probable that the information would show most
unsatisfactory results ; the only satisfaction to many a
pastoralist would be in the knowledge that he was the
possessor or owner of a well-bred, expensive ram. The first
duty and principal object for a breeder is to become the
possessor of suitable ewes, for without them all the high and
best bred rams could not reasonably be expected to give the
best results. A high-priced ram, however good, must have
ewes equally well-bred, of symmetrical formation and
proportionately uniform covering. A stud master will
consider his ewes first, and he will then select his ram
with the view of improving the progeny in either symmetry
or covering, or both.
How many of these high-class rams have not had a
possible chance to show their worth, simply because the
ewes to which they were put were inferior in all-round
qualities; blood will tell its own tale'; any inferiority on
either side of the parents will detract from excellencies of the
other. Having an increasing number of small station-
holders possessing a few hundred of ewes, which are
acclimatised and suited to a district, the nucleus of very
useful flocks can be formed by carefully selecting the
largest and best formed ewes. They may not be everything
desired in their wool-yielding properties, but, having a
good frame, there is something to work upon, only requiring
an ordinary amount of care and judgment. Having laid the
foundation of a flock, through the medium of the best ewes,
it is not necessary to secure high-priced rams at this stage.
Such a proceeding might not be warranted as yet, the ewes
probably not being up to a very high standard. In such
cases, select from fairly well-selected flock-rams those best
42 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
suited, with the view of improving any faults in the ewes,
more especially as to constitution and symmetry. Without un-
necessarily going to much expense for a single ram, a few quite
suitable and better adapted for building up purposes could be
purchased for the same money. By these means the progeny
would be gradually worked up to a higher standard, while, at*
.suitable ages, a further selection of the best can be made from
the younger ewes. Thus, every season brings an improved
flock, whilst the rank and file can go on in the usual way, the
object being to keep the flocks within reasonable dimensions,
and obtain as much wool as possible. In selecting a ram for
use in the better flocks, which would now have an even
appearance, or a more uniform type, care should be taken to
choose an animal of good constitution, symmetrical, and well
covered with ram's wool of a vigorous growth of its type.
Let the ram have a merino type of wool, avoiding any of the
.straight-fibred class. This formation is distinctly opposed to
the true merino wool, which is known above all other breeds
for its distinct character, or, as it was formerly called,
" curliness." If the intention is to cultivate a merino sheep,
let the covering be a merino wool, whether it is fine, medium,
or strong.
The progeny of this better flock should now be of a
higher standard than the parents, having a good shape,
covered with good, well-bred wool, and more of it. In all
probability a few of the extra good ewes might be chosen to
form a small stud flock, when a higher class ram will be
required, the offspring of which could be used in the ordinary
flock, when of age. To ensure a good lambing ; the ewes
.should not be too fat, but in good stock condition, while the
males should be on the lusty side. When coupling time
arrives, keep the rams and ewes together from a week to two
weeks, then take the ram out for a spell and give him good
nourishing feed, and at the expiration of 21 days he should
go into service again. Any ewes having been in season and
missed the ram, in 21 days will come in season again and
THE SHEEP. 43
take him (the ram). The fact that ewes keep in season
from 24 to 36 hours only, accounts for the number of dry
-ewes, or those which have missed the ram, more especially
on large stations. In order to minimise as much as possible
what may be Considered a loss by having a small percentage
of lambs, it will be plainly seen that it is essential that
the rams and ewes should have chance of being brought
together a second time. In the Western, and part of the
Central Divisions of this colony, and also in Queensland,
the whole of South and Western Australia, where the sheep
are in large paddocks, 3 per cent, of rams are requisite.
In the eastern and eastern part of the Central Division, the
whole of Victoria and Tasmania, where the paddocks and
flocks are smaller, 2 per cent, of rams should ensure a
satisfactory percentage of lambs.
You often hear woolgrowers, when discussing the merits
of their respective sheep, say: "Well, I have been striving
for many years to get my wool up to its present high quality,
but now what is my best move to keep it there?" Certainly,
there are a good many of our flocks whose wool is as near
perfection as wool can be ; it has length, colour, high
quality, and body, all that a grower and manufacturer can
desire. This, for the pastoralist, is an anxious time, when
he asks himself "What is the best thing to do to retain
my quality and quantity ? " When a wool is of this high
quality it is a sign that the sires used have done their duty,
all that was expected of them, and that there is new blood
necessary to keep up both the quantity and quality of wool.
To select sires equally fine would not be as safe as to use the
old ones, and both, if used, would have a great tendency
to make the wool finer or more delicate, whilst the weight
would deteriorate, or, in other words, would lose in
substance and body. A renewal of blood is most necessary
under these conditions, where a judicious selection would
give a further improvement in the progeny. On the other
hand, pretty woolled, or rough, uncouth woolled rams would
44 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
undo all the labour of previous years. Having, say, a high
class of fine merinos, full of quality, it is not the aim to
make it finer, but retain the high character and add density.
To accomplish this desirable end, make a selection of sires of
a suitable strain, being most particular in density of covering,
the wool crowded together all over, free in its growth, not too
long ; look more to the body of the wool than to the length,
thereby ensuring substance in the fleece. The next
consideration is the style and type of the wool of sires under
notice to be introduced into the flock. Avoid a fine wool
as mentioned, and select something more robust or
vigorous. For instance, if the ewes under notice have a
high-class merino wool, then the rams safest to select to
retain the quality of the wool should be of a robust and
vigorous fine merino type. Rams selected with wools of
this description, always assuming that they have good
constitutions, and are well formed, will keep up the weight of
the wool, and the quality is assured ; the robustness
introduced will prevent the type becoming finer, if as fine, as
the female parent.
y MERINOS. — At the present time it will be safe to say that
there is no breed of sheep numerically as large as the merino.
The origin of this breed is not by any means certain, but of
this we are assured, that it first came into special notice in
Spain. Even as to how its name of merino is derived there is
a query. Greek and Roman history tells us of the early
domesticated flocks in all the countries on both sides of
the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians particularly carried
on an extensive trade in wool 1000 years B.C., and were
also well versed in the art of making from wool the most
costly cloths, dyeing them a rich purple colour. It is
conjectured that the Phoenicians purchased their finer wools
from Spain. During the Roman Empire, sheep-breeding
was an extensive industry, and a large trade was carried
on in sheep and wool with the countries of Southern Europe
and Northern Africa. Virgil especially mentions in his
THE SHEEP. 45
writings the breeding of sheep, and offers advice as regards
culling, and says :—
Is wool thy care ? Let not thy cattle go
Where bushes are, where burrs and thistles grow,
Nor in too rank a pasture let them feed.
Then of the purest white select thy breed.
Ev'n then a snowy ram thou shalt behold,
Prefer him not in haste for husband to thy fold,
But search his mouth, and if a swarthy tongue
Is underneath his humid palate hung,
Reject him, lest he darken all thy flock,
And substitute another from thy stock.
Many ancient historians speak of the colour of the sheep
as dark or black, but preference is always given to white. It
is now said that there is a possibility that the name of black
was given to the wool which had not been washed, or in its
greasy state. But, according to the earliest history, Jacob
settled that question by changing the colour of the inside
of his folds and watering-troughs, making them streaky
by the use of white, so as to attract the attention of the sheep
whilst coupling. This method of scientific breeding, which
had the desired effect, changed the wool of the lambs from its
ordinary colour into streaky.
The finest-woolled flocks were found in Pollentia, in
Italy, and Corduba, in Spain, on the Guadalquiver.
With reference to the different colours of wool, Cotumella
says: — "There are wools of divers colours which may be
recommended."
Pollentia, in Italy, produces grey and black; Corduba, in
Spain, and some parts of Asia, wool of a reddish colour.
The great probabilities are that the various colours of
wool in different countries are caused by the colour of the soils.
Whether the opinions of many authorities, who have
traced the sheep from Colchis through Asia Minor, Greece to
Italy, and Carthage, on the north coast of Africa, and, lastly,
to Spain, are correct in stating that these sheep were the
ancestors of the merino sheep, will probably never be known.
46 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
It is positively stated that in ancient times the existence of
sheep was confined to Europe, Asia, and Africa. In America
there was found a mountain sheep, which probably found its
way from Asia. In Australia no sheep of any kind were
found, evidently accounted for by its being an island, and a
great distance away from other continents.
As the development of the merino is handed down from
the ancients we must, therefore, take it for granted that in the
Roman era there was a race of sheep found in the countries
around the Mediterranean Sea having a wool similarly
formed to that of the merino. There appears to be a doubt as
to whether these sheep were the ancestors of the Spanish
merino, or whether they were imported from that country by
the Moors. We are informed that when the Moors were in
Spain there was a breed of sheep besides the merino, with a
black wool. How the merino derived that name it is a matter
of conjecture. Some say that the name merino was given in
honour of a Roman officer called " Marinas," who came
with sheep to Spain. Another version — Marinas, meaning
mariner, from over the sea. Others consider that it took its
name from the horned merino found in Morocco, signifying
curled, after the character of its wool and horns. As to the
modern origin of the name, it will suffice to say that it is
taken from the Spanish, the word merino signifying
traveller, fugitive, or a travelling sheep. The Spanish
phrase, transhumantes merino, is in accordance with
the custom centuries ago of travelling to the mountains in
summer and return in winter time. At that time certain
favoured owners claimed the rights to travel and pasture their
vast flocks (called " Cabanas") over large tracts of country.
This privilege, called " Meza," was claimed to be only the
rights of the Crown, aristocracy, and a few convents. Such
travelling sheep were given the name of Transhumantes to
distinguish them from the Estantes, so called because they
were constantly kept on the same pasture, and did not possess
the right of "Meza." The difference existing between the
UNI
THE SHEEP.
named flocks is probably due to the above-named system of
management, although they may have all sprung from one
race. Until about four centuries ago Spain was the sole
possessor of this particular race, the wool of which, on
account of its peculiar qualities and fineness, produced more
durable fabrics than the wool of any other breed. The Spanish
authorities soon became aware of the very great advantage
they possessed over other countries, and, by law, prevented
for a considerable time other countries from becoming
competitors, and refused to part with any of this remarkable
breed. The English became aware of the superiority of the
Spanish wool over their own for manufacturing purposes,
and entered into negotiations with the view of procuring some
of the Spanish merino sheep, so as to cultivate and raise this
fine wool for their own fabrics. It is first mentioned that in
the reign of Edward V. 3,000 merinos were obtained from
Spain and imported into England, and about 100 years later
Queen Mary of England, wife of Philip II. of Spain, again
imported 3,000 more merinos, which were distributed over the
country to cross with the native English sheep. The result
was not a lasting success ; the climate evidently was all
against the merino race. In the years 1787 and 1791
George III. acquired several rams and 36 ewes of the
Negretti breed, being a present from the Marchioness del
Campe di Angeto. This flock was kept at Kew, and it is
of special interest to Australians that at the first auction in
1804 at Kew numbers were bought by Captain MacArthur, of
N.S. W. This is said to be the first real stud flock established
in Australia. At the auction 45 rams were sold, and the
highest price was ^44. After several years other merinos
were imported into England and located at Kew, amongst
the more noteworthy being a present of 2,000 from the King
of Spain (1808), and from the Cabana Paula, one of the finest
flocks in the country, belonging to the Carthusian Monastery
at Seierka. In 181 1 a merino society was formed in England,
with "Sir Joseph Banks" as president, for the purpose of
48 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
encouraging the breeding of merino sheep. The raising
of the merino was only a passing success, and never extended
much in England ; consideration had to be given to mutton
production as well as wool. The last flock was disposed of a
few years ago, and was owned by Mr. Sturgeon. Far better
results have been obtained from the importations of Spanish
sheep into Germany, Austria, and France. In 1765 King
Charles of Spain made a present of 92 rams and 198 ewes to
Elector Frederick August of Saxony, which were kept on the
estate of Stolpen. The Government of Saxony soon found
out the utility of these animals, and made a purchase of
89 rams and 169 ewes in 1779, for the sum of ;£ 1,500. This
flock was also located at Stolpen, and the former was
transferred to Lohmen, where it is kept to this day in its
purest state for breeding purposes. From these two flocks
the merino spread rapidly over the whole of Germany. In
Prussia the Government liberally aided the importation of
Spanish merinos. Frederick the Great imported, in 1778, 100
rams and 200 ewes, and several years after 1,000 more were
selected by Mr. Fink at Petersburg, near Halle.
The excellence of quality and texture of their flocks soon
became known, and the breeders, working in conjunction
with the manufacturers, forming themselves into a council,
did much to further the cultivation of these valuable animals.
In 1775 Maria Theresa acquired a flock from Spain. Then
followed the Emperor Joseph in 1784 with another flock
of 1,000 Spanish merinos, also in 1802 a large flock of 8,000
were imported. The Negretti is another distinct breed of
merino, differing from the Spanish merino in body and
covering, and known by their thick-set and powerful
barrel-like forms, as compared with the Spanish. It has
also a more robust wool, and still retains the merino clothing
character, and derives its name from Count Negretti, who
bred this particular type of sheep.
The third group is the combing wool merino, a flock
belonging to the French Government, known as the
THE SHEEP. 49
Rambouillet. This type of merino was bred with the view of
growing a large, powerful frame for the butcher, covered
with a lengthy, dense staple, the curves not so numerous, and
more wavy or undulating. France being a close neighbour
to Spain, the merinos were imported much earlier than in
other countries. Mons. Colbert, in the time of Louis XIX.,
had founded a flock at Rousillon, the descendants of which
were used for improving the native races. There was no real
success in the native sheep until the introduction of the
Spanish sheep to the Rambouillet, through the permission of
the King of Spain. These two types, with careful breeding,
produced a perfectly new race, having no resemblance to any
of its parents, but fully their equal, both in body and in the
quality of wool, which now formed the characteristic and
fashionable Rambouillet race.
About the end of the last century the Spanish merinos
were introduced into younger countries, America and
Australia, where they have been successfully cultivated, so
that it may be safely said that in no other countries has
sheep-breeding been so successful. America began in 1793
by an importation of merinos direct from Spain, through Mr.
Foster, of Boston. In 1802 the American Ambassador in
Spain procured 21 rams and 70 ewes, and by his successor in
1809 1,760 merinos were sent to America, closely followed by
another flock of 3,850. In succeeding years the American stud-
masters visited Germany and France, where they purchased
extensively. Those from the last-named country were
domiciled mostly in California. There are several types of
merinos in the States, the best known being the Vermont
merino, which were bred from sheep imported directly from
Spain by Messrs. Foster, Jarvis, and Colonel Humphrey.
These sheep take much after the Negretti type, with big folds
and wrinkles, their wool being dense, carrying a great
amount of yolk, generally of a dark colour.
Merinos were taken to South America, where they
extended and increased rapidly up to within the last ten years,
50 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
when the Argentine and Uruguay Republics turned their
attention more to crossbreds, leaving the honour to
Australasia of possessing the largest number of merino sheep.
The introduction of merinos into Cape Colony is of
particular interest to Australia, as from thence came the first
imported stock. It is said that the Dutch first brought a[few
sheep from Spain to the Cape in 1754, but the trial .was
attended with poor results. About the year 1790 a Mr. Ritter
established a small flock at the Cape with fair success, ?and
later on the Dutch Government imported merinos directTrom
Spain, as well as a few from Kew, England. The importations
by Mr. Ritter came into the possession of Colonel Gordon.
After the Colonel's death in 1797, the little flock, 27 sheep in
all, was sold to Captain Waterhouse and Mr. Kent, Sydney,
which were brought out by the ships " Argo " and '^Golden
Fleece."
At the Cape the merino sheep have been increasing
largely in numbers, yielding a great supply of wool, which
was of a fairly fine class, but, through neglect or want of
knowledge, many flocks have degenerated, their wool
becoming uneven and irregular. Although Australasia is a
greater distance from the original merino breeding centre,
entailing much more risk and monetary outlay, there is no
country where the merino has given such satisfactory results,
either in quantity or quality of their wool or largeness of
frame. The climatic conditions, although varied, with the
natural food, have given a helping hand in improving both
the body and covering, without the expense of coddling,
nursing, and artificial feeding. There is no country where
the merino requires less nursing and attention than our own.
Nature being so bountiful that these noble animals thrive
when turned out into large paddocks, sometimes mustered
but two or three times a year, and exposed to all atmospheric
changes ; yet at shearing time they will yield a large fleecev
of the greatest commercial value. The Australian merino
wool has no successful competitor ; for its manufacturing
THE SHEEP. 51
qualities, its silky texture, softness, pliability, and colour
stand unequalled for spinning and general purposes,
whether it be in the fine, medium, or strong classes or
types.
The early history of the wool industry in these colonies
is full of romance. The early settlers, who had nothing to
guide them but their dogged, persistent perseverance,
gradually overcame all obstacles, and laid a safe foundation
upon which is being built a great nation. In 1793 Captain
Waterhouse sold to six different colonists 26 sheep, imported
from the Cape to Sydney, Captain McArthur purchasing
three rams and five ewes. The Captain appears to have been
the most successful of all the purchasers of first importations,
and to him must be given the honour of founding, at
Parramatta, the first sheep station in Australasia. However,
the moist climate and the local pastures had an unfavourable
influence upon these sheep. It was not until the pastures had
been considerably cleared of timber, thus allowing the sun
free access, that the land became purified, and the sourness
destroyed, which had greatly hindered the success of sheep-
breeding.
Captain McArthur in 1827 removed his flock to Camden,
where it showed further signs of greater improvement, and to
this day a few descendants remain.
The wool of the present time is lengthy, well-grown
combing, full of character and quality, with the real pure
merino characteristics, for which these sheep were renowned.
In 1804 McArthur purchased a few rams and ewes at
George III.'s Kew sales, which arrived in Sydney in 1805.
From the blending of these two flocks came the noted
Camden flock, which has been kept pure to this day. From
time to time these colonies have introduced different types of
merino, such as Silesian, Saxon, Negretti, and Rambouillet,
to further improve our flocks, until an acknowledged
Australian merino was established, for which it can be
claimed that it has no compeer in any part of the world for
52 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
size of body, together with the quantity, quality, and texture
of its wool. The arrival at this exalted position was mainly
through the able assistance rendered by the Tasmanian
studmasters, to whom much honour is due, and to that colony
may rightly be given the name of " The Australasian Merino
Stud Farm."
In the early years of the present century the Van
Dieman's Land Co. entered extensively into the pastoral
industry of the little island^ with the object of supplying
England with wool, so as to make her as independent as
possible of foreign supplies. A. large tract of country was
secured at Circular Head, and thither large consignments
were made from the best and purest Saxony flocks. From
1825 to 1830 that company expended ^"30,000 in the
importation of sheep. The first consignment, through the
agency of Mr. W. E. Cur, arrived in 1826, consisting of 10 rams
and4oewes, of pure Cotswold. In 1827 the "Caroline" landed
103 rams and 61 ewes, at a cost of £i^ igs. per head, of pure
Saxony merinos. The year after, 13 rams and 359 ewes of
the same breed, costing £15 125. gd. per head, arrived in the
"Timandra." The " Lady Ravenna" closely followed,
from the same place, with 14 rams and 291 ewes, at a cost of
£15 6s. lod. per head. In the year 1830 there were in the
possession of the company at the Circular Head estates
60,129 sheep, including lambs.
Mr. W. Warrington in 1829 imported 45 rams and 100
ewes of the Electoral breed, from Saxony, as well as pure
Negrettis, costing £16 i8s. per head. This latter flock was
kept separate, and is known as Trimmer's flock. The
foundation of the Tasmanian flock was laid with the purest
merino types procurable. As time advanced so did the flocks
improve, eclipsing in every minute detail the imported sheep.
We have only to look back at the great records of high prices
paid for stud sheep during the last decade, not only for
their beautiful wool, but for their constitution and size, to see
that by scientific breeding, sound judgment, carefulness,
THE SHEEP. 53
assisted by the climate, the Tasmanians have surpassed
the breeders of all other countries, producing from the
imported stock an all-round improved merino sheep. It is a
question whether any other country can at the present time
count as many high-class merino sheep as the breeders of
Tasmania. The Tasmanians have played a very strong part
amongst the flocks throughout Australia, and through them
principally the great reputation of the Australian merino wool
exists. Their sheep were bred from stock similar to our own,
but with more satisfactory results, the climate being the same
throughout the island, the flocks much smaller, and the
stations cut up into convenient-sized paddocks, thus enabling
the studmasters to pay more attention to their charges.
As with the American sheep, they have given satisfactory
as well as disappointing results, but any disappointment rests
entirely with the pastoralists on this continent, many having
purchased a good ram or rams without considering the class
of ewes they intend them for, whilst the climate in many
instances has not received due consideration. How
pastoralists situated out West, or on exposed plains, can
expect to succeed with the highly-bred Tasmanian sheep,
bred and reared under altogether opposite conditions, is hard
to understand ; it looks far more feasible to breed the stock
in localities as nearly as possible like the place where the
sheep are bred, then transfer the offspring to back country,
or, in other words, acclimatise them gradually. There has
been a tendency, even among some of the Tasmanian
breeders, to follow the fashion and go in for a much stronger-
woolled sheep, and they no doubt have bred some wonderfully
good sheep, especially of the medium wool class, a very service-
able sheep indeed. In isolated cases some of the rams sold
here in Sydney are too rough in their coats, causing a little
disappointment to the purchasers. It is advisable, even in
Tasmania, if a strong merino is to be cultivated, to let it have
the characteristics of the merino wool. However, the above-
mentioned cases are not the rule, but the exception.
54 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
The Victorian merino is an excellent animal, mostly
descended from Tasmanian stock, the climate tending to
encourage an improved length, imparting also an unrivalled,
silky texture of the greatest value. The stud sheep are in
the front ranks, their large, well-proportioned bodies,
together with their high-class wool and density, having
placed them in a prominent position amongst Australasian
flocks.
The commercial wool of Victoria generally leads all other
wools as to value per Ib. ; the excellent brightness, together
with its beautiful texture, always enhances its value as a
manutactunng wool, realising the highest rates, which are
readily paid by makers of the best class of textile fabrics.
South Australian merinos as a body differ from those
of other colonies, the sheep being large-framed, and carrying
strong, shafty, deep-grown wool. There are many admirable
stud flocks, and their fine frames and robust wool are
favourably known in all these colonies. These sheep are
very hardy, and stand the western climate exceedingly well,
and the wool, with its vigour, suffers less on the open plains
than any other breed.
Queensland has a variety of merinos suitable for the
varied climates, from tropical to temperate. On the Darling
Downs, which may be called the stud farm for the extensive
back country, there are several excellent and highly-bred
studs. Amongst them can be found sheep fit to compete in
the shows of the more southern colonies, in either the fine,
or strong classes. The different studs of Tasmania, N.S.W.,
Victoria, and South Australia have been extensively drawn
from, and many of the best stud sheep of Australasia have
found their way into the hands of capable studmasters of the
northern colony.
When the Australian merino wool was at its height of
perfection and renown throughout the manufacturing world,
both for its great spinning capacity, silkiness, softness, and
colour, many pastoralists sought to introduce more density,
THE SHEEP. 55
or heavier fleece, and although very many were obtaining
satisfactory weights per fleece and keeping up the high
standard of quality, others introduced the American to obtain
that desirable end. Much can be said for and against these
sheep, as pure as our own, being descendants of the Spanish
merino, but from the different methods of treatment, were
changed iuto a special type, very wrinkley, with a great
abundance of yolk. There have been many excellent results,
and if the texture of the wool has suffered a little, the weight
has increased. On the other hand, there have been a great
many failures, no doubt caused through ignorance, a want of
knowledge of proper selection of ewes to put with American
rams. These sheep became so fashionable that a great
number of sheep-owners, without considering whether their
flocks or climate were suitable for the introduction of the
American breed or not, followed the fashion, with a result
that spelled failure. At many of our pastoral shows are to be
seen sheep penned with the American brand, real good types
of merino sheep, covered with a characteristic merino wool,
and in the next pen there will be the American Australian
sheep, to the wool of which when shorn neither woolgrower
nor manufacturer would give the name of merino wool. At
the present time there never were in these colonies so many
pure merino sheep, giving what has been named by the
highest buying authorities a crossbred wool, the results of
miscellaneous breeding, and, to use a sheep-station phrase,
have not nicked. This is thoroughly illustrated by the result
of the Ninth Murrumbidgee Scouring Test, when two of the
best known wool-buying experts in Australia, who valued the
wool scoured exhibits, reported as follows : —
" The undersigned wish to draw attention to the fact
that two of the lots submitted them are distinctly of a
crossbred character, not only as regards quality of fibre, but
also as regards hardness and absence of true spinning
qualities. It would be regrettable if any confusion as to the
true quality of the merino fibre was to become prevalent
56 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
among breeders, as it would tend to militate against the
proper classing and get-up of clips for the market." Signed,
Messrs. LEAROYD and PRENAT.
A judicious selection of American rams (but let them
have a merino fleece) used with ewes with wool of quality and
length, will, in many instances, be beneficial to density.
After one strain, in most cases, the safest procedure is to come
back on to the Australian merino type to secure an
undoubted merino wool.
A GOOD STUD SHEEP. — Amongst the great numbers of
different breeds of sheep, there are many general points that
relate to all breeds alike. When selecting the breeding
stock of any particular breed there is a standard of excellence
which all stud sires and dames should possess in proportion
to their type, whether it be the fine merino, or the strong,
lengthy, lustrous Lincolns. However careful a breeder may
be, he will not produce a strictly uniform excellence
throughout his flock, no two sheep being exactly alike ; one
might have all the good properties of the sire and dam, whilst
the same parents will produce another animal altogether
inferior in general character.
In the first place the sire must show a prominent
masculinity or manliness, whilst the dam should have a more
refined build, or effeminacy without delicacy. Both should
bear the model and characteristics of the type they represent
in a most pronounced manner. The possessing of this family
type is considered to be a sign of good blood, the stronger
the resemblance the higher class is the breeding or blood. A
sire should give at once the impression that he is manly,
noble, and commanding, with a forcible expression, a leader
and guardian of his flock. To assist himself in this position
he must have a sound constitution and great vitality ;
possessing these requisites, he is considered to be the
qualified leader and head of a flock. When choosing, look
at the head, which should be well set, not too large or small,
but in keeping, or in proportion, with the body ; face open,
-58
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
MERINO STUD RAM.
THE SHEEP. 59
with a determined expression ; eyes prominent, bright, but
kind and intelligent ; the neck well rounded, muscular, wide
at the junction of the head, and enlarging gradually until
joining the shoulders. There should be a wide, deep, and
roomy chest, full and wide around the girth, straight from
the base of the neck to the rump ; any indent, either before
or behind the wither, is a sign of weakness ; back strong,
level, well proportioned down to the tail, wrhich should be
large, broad, and evenly placed ; hindquarters well rounded,
well let down, and muscular down to the hock, with legs well
set under ; the legs should be straight, stout, knees broad,
and hoofs and horns, if any of the latter, clear.
MERINO RAM — POINTS. — The head should be in
proportion to the body, neither too long and large, nor too
small. A large-headed sheep is mostly of a sleepy, lazy
disposition, and a small head is a sign of delicacy ; the poll
slightly arched, with horns well set, of a clear, pale golden
dun colour, free from spots or streaks of black, and taking a
regular curve, showing distinct, with regular corrugations,
and not too close at their base or to the cheek ; there should
be sufficient room between to allow for a growth of wool, and
for it to continue well on to the whole of the forehead, and in
many cases to the cheek ; forehead very slightly arched, with
room between the eyes to give an open, an intelligent
appearance ; eyes bright, intelligent, but mild, and not too
prominent ; face not too long, a trifle rounded, with two or
three distinct ridges or wrinkles from each side of the mouth ;
muzzle well rounded, nostrils wide ; a pinched nose and small
nostrils denote a weak constitution ; the lower part of the
face should be well covered with short, fine, soft velvety hair,
and as free as possible from black spots. In the prize-ring
these spots are not fatal, but if two sheep are of equal merit,
otherwise the one with the least black spots would take
precedence ; mouth clear, and perfectly free from any black
spots or lines, with teeth regular and evenly set apart ; ears
thin and fine, of medium size, and covered with short, fine
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AXD WOOL.
silky hair ; neck rather short, but evenly set, tapering towards
the junction with the head ; back straight and flat, from
which the ribs rise with a fine circular arch, or, as it is often
called, "well-sprung ribs"; shoulders broad and full, well
developed, with a thick, fleshy forearm ; chest full, broad,
and deep ; brisket broad and prominent, and well let down
between the front legs ; the whole front should appear
massive, and have two or three folds, the bottom one the
largest, the whole appearing as a large apron ; these folds
extend right around the neck, where they are smallest, and
extend or enlarge as they come down the front ; belly straight,
rump well rounded ; quarters long and full down to the hock,
standing straight ; twist (that part of the inside thighs or
junction of both hind legs) deep,
wide, which, with the broad
breast, keep the four legs wide,
or open, and upright ; legs
stout, good bones, but not
coarse, nice flat knees, the
whole well covered with wool ;
hoofs clear and free from black
lines or streaks ; pelt thin,
fine, soft, but still strong, and
should be of a pinky colour,
which denotes health.
COVERING. — The wool of
the merino differs, as there are
now three distinct types — fine,
medium, and strong, or deep-
grown. It is necessary in each
class that the wool should be of
a vigorous character; for breed-
ing purposes pretty-woolled
sheep should be avoided. What
is wanted is a wool with body,
draught, free, distinctness in MERINO WOOL.
THE SHEEP. 61
character, and no undue roughness or hairiness ; last,
but not least, density. In a fine wool we rarely find a
great length, although there is a fine combing class ; the
growth is mostly short, the crimps particularly well defined,
evenly set apart, and most numerous, and all wools having
as many as 24 of these crimps to the inch can safely be placed
in the fine wools ; the tips ot the staples must be compact,
level, and not pointed ; and they mostly have a small
quantity of black yolk, in the shape of pearls, and thus
derive the name u pearly-headed tip," and is a sure indication
of a fine merino wool. Medium merino stud wools have a
longer and bolder growth than the fine ; the crimps are also
fewer in number, 18 to 23 to the inch, and they are also
slightly more undulating, and, if measured, the diameter
of the fibre is seen to be greater. This type of wool may be
distinguished by the tip being flat or blunt. Strong merinos
have the largest formation in every respect, a greater depth
and larger-bodied staple, and the crimps, numbering from
14 to 1 8 to the inch, should be distinct, free, and even to the
tip, which is formed like a club.
FLOCK RAMS. — Much attention is necessary when
selecting rams, whether for the stud or for use in the ordinary
breeding flock. For ordinary breeding purposes it is not
expected that expensive classic sires, or even second studs,
can be selected for use with ewes of the rank and file. What
is wanted bv the great majority of our pastoralists, especially
those having limited or small holdings, are fairly good
all-round, useful sorts of rams, suitable for the class of
country, as well as the class of ewes. It is not to be expected
that rams to be used in their ordinary flocks will be faultless ;
far from it, but they should have as few faults and be as
evenly balanced in body and covering as possible. The very
bad points are : An effeminate head, or a wether head, which
indicates a weaker constitution, and if introduced with the
progeny means a weakly flock, with little wool. The devil's
grip may be said to be about the worst of all defects, and
62 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
there is no other that is so readily and consistently
transmitted. This may be called a malformation, in the
shape of an indent or dip appearing first near the wither, and
continuing down behind the shoulder, just the same as if a
string had been put round that part of the sheep and
tightened. In some young sheep this defect is so great as to
give them a crippled or deformed appearance. Such sheep
will never do good to anybody, being delicate and bad
thrivers. A thin neck is a bad sign, implying delicacy ; also
a narrow front, or breast, and brisket are most objectionable,
being the forerunners of bad constitution, and an indifferent
and unpaying animal. Avoid any rams with especially
narrow backs, flat sides, weak quarters, and thin, small
bones' As to the covering of, say, a useful-looking flock
ram, any with a thin-pointed tip, open staple, too fine, too
great a variety in his wool, thin behind the arm and near
flank, also light on belly, are to be avoided ; also when the
wool handles hard, harsh, and unnatural.
UNDERSHOT. — This term relates to the formation of the
mouth of a sheep, when the under jaw or chin protrudes or
overlaps the upper jaw. This is a very objectionable fault when
present in a sheep, as it interferes with the gathering and
masticating of its food. In many instances rams and ewes
have this fault, and is generally transmitted to their offspring ;
therefore, it is not advisable to breed from such sheep. Many
high-class and artificially-fed sheep appear undershot to a
slight extent. In such cases it is not a fault, as in the act of
masticating dry and artificial food there is a tendency to cause
the under jaw to slightly overlap the upper. Under these
conditions the offspring will not show an undershot mouth.
OVERSHOT. — When the upper part of the mouth over-
laps the lower, it is a fault equally objectionable as undershot,
for similar reasons.
THE SHEEP.
63
A RAM TO BE AVOIDED.
THE SHEEP.
(55
FINE, MEDIUM, AND STRONG MERINO. — The N.S.W.
Sheep-breeders' Association, at their annual show, have three
classes — Fine, medium, and strong merino sections. To a
great many sheep-breeders, both in and out of N.S.W., these
three classes are received unfavourably, the contention being
that two classes, viz., fine and
strong, are sufficient, and by
adding the medium (an interme-
diate class) the whole becomes
confusing. Outside the breeders
themselves, those best qualified
to judge the wool are the wool-
buyers, who are in no way
backward in giving their opinions
that there are certainly three dis-
tinct classes of merino competing
at our great international sheep
show annually.
The varied climates and pas-
tures of the different parts of the
Australian colonies have certainly
been the main factors in causing
this distinction, which, together
with the modern ideas of sheep-
breeding, have gone hand in
hand.
In other colonies where the
temperature and general con-
ditions of climate are more equal,
the two classes, fine and strong,
meet all requirements. In Tas-
mania the fine merinos up to date
are most numerous, with a ten-
dency to become fewer, as many
breeders are cultivating too much robustness for a fine merino.
The strong merinos of this colony are comparatively few.
FINE.
°f an inch and over.
66
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
The Victorian climate specially conduces to length, and
here the fine and strong classes can be pretty evenly balanced
as regards numbers.
In South Australia the fine, and even the medium, are in a
great minority, the strong merino predominating, and probably
one general merino class would cover all contingencies.
In Queensland the stud farms are mostly situated side by
side on the Darling Downs, where there are two classes, fine
and strong ; easy to distinguish at their shows.
Most of the influential sheep-breeders of the colonies,
with the exception of the South Australians, come into open
competition with their sheep at the N.S.W. Sheep-breeders'
Association'sannual show, Sydney, and a right royal battle it is.
No doubt the three
classes cause the competi-
tors to study their entries
at this show, thereby prac-
tically illustrating their
own ideas of what con-
stituted fine, medium, and
strong merinos. Many
breeders contend that be-
cause a sheep is classed
asfine in their own district,
they must certainly be
entered as fine. This is
where most of the glaring
mistakes are made, es-
pecially when a fine
merino, western Riverina,
sheep is pitted against
Mudgee, New England,
Yass, Young, or Tas-
manian fine-woolled en-
MEDIUM— T<yVo to TTsVir. trjes. There is a per-
ceptible difference in fine wools of these districts, and even in the
actual form of the sheep. It makes not the slightest difference
THE SHEEP. 67
medium, whatever is considered by any breeder to be a fine,
or strong- merino if, on taking the average quality of a fleece,
it is found no't to come up to a certain standard ; all the
arguments available cannot make that particular sheep fine,
medium, or strong. Taking the fine-woolled class only—
especially the housed section — both exhibitors and judges
appear to be mystified until the whole becomes a vexed
question. Whether it is that the breeders are uncertain as to
the opinions of the judges on what constitutes a fine-woolled
sheep or not, this class, even at the last show (1899), contained
sheep of different varieties of qualities. Amongst the prize
winners there was not a fine-woolled sheep in the lot, and
only one, and that one doubtful, in the whole of the entries in
section A of fine wools.
This is not an individual opinion, but a general one.
The great questions were, Where are our fine wools? How
are we to distinguish them? It was generally acknowledged
that the true fine-woolled merino was conspicuous by its
absence from a great many sections. Every allowance must
be made for a stud sheep, as it is imperatively necessary for
such to show more vigorous and robust growth of wool ; yet
there is no reason why this class should show such varieties
or mixture of grades. Considering there is such an amount
of uncertainty amongst breeders and judges, and no reference
as to what really is fine, there appears but one solution to the
difficulty, which was advanced two years ago.
To deal with this matter, it has been suggested that, after
all the sheep are in their respective places according to the
opinions of the owners, let them be inspected by one, two, or
even three qualified wool experts, giving them power to put
any sheep into any other class they might think the proper
place.
Let these experts judge nothing but the wool or covering,
then when the sheep judge comes his labour will not be
troubled with the fine, medium, and strong wool question.
By so doing the disqualification of sheep will die a natural
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
death, as it should do. The sheep-breeders would only
require to follow the entries at one or two shows under these
conditions, after which very few wrong" entries would be found
in any of the sections. This appears to be the only plan to
give the desired results, and no doubt this is the only method
to instruct breeders and judges alike.
Many argue it will be a mistake to bring in a wool
expert, contending that he does not know what is required in
a breeding sheep, and would therefore judge the wool from a
manufacturer's point of view. A qualified wool expert has
only to examine the different classes of fine, medium, and
strong stud wools, when he will go through the different lots,
leaving them in a far
more satisfactory state
than under the present
existing circumstances.
If objections are raised
against an expert who
buys wool for the manu-
facturer, then there
are others who are
thorough experts, and
who have for a number
of years been amongst
good stud sheep on
large stations. Their
wool experience, to-
getherwith their annual
work amongst stud
sheep, undoubtedly fits
them for the work of
accepting or rejecting
any sheep at any of
our pastoralists' shows,
either intercolonial or
international.
Acknowledging that
we have three distinct
STRONG— i an eow. classes of merino, al-
THE SHEEP. ()9
though the fine wools are gradually disappearing, they must be
catered for, but it is very probable that the standard will have
to be lowered according to that of other countries. However,
this should be left in the hands of the Sheepbreeders'
Association.
Fine wool, at the present time, measures y-gVn of an inch,
which is the lowest limit. Most of the prize-takers in the
fine-wooled ram sections at our recent shows rarely measure
TTOO of an inch.
The medium class — the most useful class of all merinos
in these colonies — should have a larger frame than the fine,
stronger in the horn, coarser pelt — a more robust sheep all
round, both in body and wool. The acknowledged measure-
ment of this class varies from below TTfeo to Touo of an inch.
The strong class is a larger moulded animal than the
medium, bigger in frame, with a decidedly stronger or
thicker fibred wool measuring T^O-TT of an inch up.
USES FOR MERINO WOOL. — The other class of wool is
used to an equal extent with that from the merino sheep for
the manufacturing of fabrics or tissues for the clothing of the
human race. The varieties of merino wool are much more
numerous than that of any other breed ; therefore the
greater aptitude for making so many more classes of fabrics.
There is the short, fine, dense, crimpy, elastic fibred wool
from Mudgee, with a world-wide reputation amongst
manufacturers, which, because of its silky texture, is used
extensively in the silk factories, and it blends with silk most
readily. This special feature is not found in any class of wool
other than the merino, which is used for the highest class of broad
cloths. No wools but those of the highest quality and felting
property can be used for making these woollen cloths, whilst
the great number of lower sorts are specially adapted for the
fabrics of various lower qualities. The Australian climate,
above all others, has the tendency to encourage length, so
that at the present time it may safely be said that fully two-
thirds of the merino wool of these colonies is specially suited
70 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
for the combing process ; therefore, yielding a greater
proportion of real fine combing wools, which were almost
unknown fifty years ago.
The Australian merino combing wools are pre-eminently
in advance of any other country in the opinions of all wool
buyers, the climate having infused that valuable property of
extensibility, fitting it in every respect for the most exacting
spinning operations. We have only to examine the very
thin or small, strong thread yarn used for making those
delicate-looking tissues used so extensively in making
Mousseline-de-Laine cashmeres, for ladies' wear, to see
the exceptional spinning qualities of our best merino wools.
Not only are merino combings confined to high-class goods,
but a great number of their degrees of qualities, even down to
the strong, retain proportionately their spinning capacity and
usefulness for fabrics of lower grades.
THE LINCOLN.
This breed is the largest, and grows the strongest wool of
the English breeds. The mutton is coarse-grained, and yields
very large proportions of fat. It is a sheep requiring an
abundance of food, and is best suited to heavy agricultural
lands. If feed is scarce, the sheep loses weight rapidly, and
when once in low condition is an expensive animal to put
again into good condition. It is a good traveller, and will
wander a great distance in search of food, but, when food is
plentiful, it is lazy.
POINTS. — The head has a massive appearance, but
should not be out of proportion to the body ; arched poll,
broad and roomy between the ears, which are well set on
side, and are rather broad, inclined to be thick, should be
covered with soft white hair ; eyes, wide apart and full,
intelligent and calm ; face not too long, but broad, with a
full, bold, rounded muzzle, covered with a dark skin, which,
under the white hair, appears of a bluish cast ; lips, rather
THE SHEEP.
71
LINCOLN STUD RAM.
\ \8 R A
U OF THE
UNIVERSITY
THE SHEKP.
thick ; jaw, rather deep, yet straight ; the head is well
covered with a large topknot of lustrous wool, extending
down to the forehead ; neck inclined to be long, thick at the
base, and tapering a little towards the head ; back, straight
and broad, sometimes a trifle
hollow ; the ribs well sprung
from the chine, then tending to
be straight ; body, long, with
forward shoulders ; chest, full,
broad, and deep ; sides, in-
clined to be flat ; legs, strong,
standing wide apart ; knees,
thick and broad, covered with
short white hairs ; rump, well
developed, but not too large ;
the pelt is thick and coarse.
COVERING. — Lincoln wool
is the longest and coarsest
wool in the lustre class. The
whole formation is massive,
the staples thick and heavy,
measuring up to 12 inches in
length, but broad, wide, un-
dulating, wavy wool, which
should possess a glossy, sil-
very, or metallic appearance.
Although the wool is so coarse,
it handles soft, and is of a
silky texture. In comparison
with the Leicester, the Lincoln
is much bolder in every re-
spect, and
many curves or
the former.
Lincoln wool is made into
fabrics of various descriptions
there are not so
waves as in
WOOL OF LINCOLN STUD RAM
Half natural size.
74 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
and designs, all of a heavy, smooth nature, many of which
are dyed into most delicate shades, for which only the fine
lustres are suitable, on account of their great reflective power,
a quality possessed by Lincoln beyond any other breed,
except Leicester, on which the wool is very similar in this
respect. Such goods are damasks, reps, Russell cords, braid,
lastings, linings, camlets, furniture cloths, serges, boot laces,
bunting ; and much is even used for dolls' hair.
Spinning qualities vary from 24*5 to 36's. Lincoln
and merino make a really good serviceable cross, and a
suitable muttcn for export, and many who have kept to that
style of breeding have found good results in both the carcass
and wool. Much of the Lincoln coarseness is lost when crossed
with the merino, the offspring producing fairly fine-grained
and succulent meat. The fat is more evenly distributed than in
the pure-bred, and not massed^n a few places, and the flesh
is of a nice flavour, whilst the wool is one of the most serviceable
crossbreds going into the market. As with the mutton, so
the wool is refined very much, showing much character, still
having a lengthy growth, with brightness, but more pliability
and softness. It may be distinguished at the natural
twelve months' growth by its lengthy staple, measuring six
to ten inches ; is bold, showing more crimps than the Lincoln,
and being decidedly finer, but not so lustrous. It is called a
demi-lustre wool, and is used for making the fabrics called
delaines, coburgs, tammies, Orleans, shalloons, and such
cloths, of a smooth, thin texture.
LEICESTER.
No breed of English sheep has been brought to such
perfection as the Leicester, and certainly there is not one
that impresses upon its progeny the good qualities of the type
in such a pronounced manner. It is said that whatever breed
the Leicester is crossed with, the result shows a greater
resemblance to the Leicester parent, both in body and
THE SHEEP.
75
LEICESTER STUD RAM.
THE SHEEP. 77
covering, and it is further contended that it improves any
breed it is put to. This is probably correct, especially if we
look at the goodly number of English longwools which have
been improved through the agency of the Leicester. Take
the Lincoln for instance, which was one of the most ordinary
looking longwools to be found, with its flat sides, long, thick,
heavy, coarse legs, narrow, lengthy back, and unusually slow
maturing capabilities. All these imperfections have been
changed by a systematic method of breeding.
The wool of the Lincoln has been greatly benefited
through the Leicester, which infused a softer and kinder
texture, without diminishing the lustre, and adding a little
more quality. Then there is the Border-Leicester, which is
an excellent all-round sheep, both for mutton and wool.
Here, again, are indications of the Leicester predominating,
giving a beautifully-moulded and larger body, and the
soft white Cheviot (with which it was crossed to produce the
Border-Leicester) wool has been improved greatly by infusing
more brightness, and, at the same time, giving it more body.
The Leicester is hardy and vigorous on good keep, and it is
said that it will produce a greater quantity of meat for the
quantity of food than most breeds. As a traveller, not many
breeds have greater powers of endurance. The meat is rather
coarse-grained, whilst the fat is in masses, and is of a luscious
nature.
POINTS. — Head, clean, small, and well set, and covered
with short, white hair ; broad between the eyes, which are
prominent, rather bold, with large orbits, which, in the ewes,
cause a difficulty in lambing ; face inclined to be long, and
much sharper featured than the Lincoln ; mouth, w7ide ;
muzzle, long ; lips not too thick, and of a bluish colour ;
ears, not too large, and well set on the side of the head, thin
and fine, and pointing backward, giving a sharp appearance ;
neck, thick towards the base, and tapering to its junction with
the head, arching slightly, but not too short ; back, flat, level,
broad before and behind, from which the ribs must rise with
78
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
a circular arch, or rounded, and giving the body a barrel-like
appearance ; shoulders broad and full, carried well forward
and backward, so as not to leave a hollow behind ; should be
well covered with firm flesh down to the arm ; breast, very
full and deep ; belly straight ; legs straight, and fine in
proportion to the size of the animal ; knees, broard ; quarters,
long and full, standing neither in
nor out ; twist (junction of the
inside thighs), deep, wide and
full, which, with the broad breast,
will keep the fore and hind legs
open and upright ; pelt, thin, soft,
yet strong.
COVERING. - - The wool is
classed with the Lincoln, as a
pure lustre, and is used by
manufacturers for the same pur-
poses. When compared with
the Lincoln, the Leicester has
not such a massive formation,
the staples not so long or so
broad, whilst the curves or
corrugations are more numerous,
giving the wool a very inviting
appearance, especially when the
lustre is of the highest order. In
sorting, the Leicester will give
one sort finer than the Lincoln.
CROSSING. — Many maintain
that the Leicester merino cross
gives the best class of crossbred
wool, as well as a profitable
sheep for the market. Where
there is good grass, clean country,
and a good supply of water, the
results are most satisfactory, the
WOOL OF
LEICESTER STUD RAM.
80
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
I
COTSWOLD STUD RAM.
THE SHEEP. 81
wool especially so, being in constant demand for combing
purposes, on account of its grand length, character, quality
and colour, and invariably giving a good, weighty fleece.
The crossbreds are hardy, capable of standing a pinch, and
taking into consideration the carcass and wool, will give
profitable returns.
COTSWOLD.
The Cotswold is one of the most valuable long-woolled
English breeds, and takes its name from the mountains of
that name, situated in Gloucestershire and neighbouring
counties. It is one of those hardy, thrifty animals, capable
of standing hardships. Besides their great wool-producing
capabilities, they are very early maturers, and the ewes are
both prolific and good mothers. This breed at one time was
considered the most valuable in England, and was in request
by Europeon countries ; and it is said that the merino of
Spain is much indebted to the Cotswold for its excellences.
This probably is not intended to refer to the Transhumantes,
or travelling sheep, of Spain, with their fine short fleeces,
but more to the Spanish sheep of the plains and valleys,
These valley sheep are called the Chunah, and are altogether
different from the mountain sheep in carcass and covering,
being larger, heavier, and covered with a long, bright, bold
combing wool, much finer than the Cotswold, and much
coarser than the merino. This is evidently the result of
introducing the Cotswold into Spain. The Cotswold has a
little more quality than the Leicester, being equally long in
the staple, but not so bold, and contains many more crimps.
The wool has a soft feel and silky texture, spinning from
44's to 32's.
The mutton is rather coarse, but succulent, and the fat is
fairly well distributed. Young sheep or hoggets weigh 25 to
28 Ibs. per quarter, and when over two years old 35 Ibs.
82
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL,
POINTS. — Head has a strong, massive appearance
without horns ; ears well set apart, and well back on sides,
and roomy between th^m ; face well covered with large tuft,
or top-knot, hanging well down. Eyes mild and broad
between ; orbits large. Face long ; jaw deep ; Roman nose,
and round muzzle, covered
sometimes with white and
sometimes with grey, with
legs to match, taking after
the Downs tribe. Neck short,
but broad, and tapering
slightly towards the head.
Back large, straight and broad;
ribs well sprung, giving a
round body. Front not too
prominent or square ; shoul-
ders set back ; quarters heavy,
square, full and broad ; thigh
solid and heavy , with deep
flanks. Belly straight. Legs
of moderate length, bone
strong, and not so fine as in
the Leicester. Has a stylish
appearance, good carriage, and
is a vigorous and hardy sheep.
COVERING. — Amongst the
manufacturers there is no other
strong wool held in such high
estimation. It is one of the
very brightest of the demi-
lustres, but is not considered
to be a pure lustre like the
Lincoln or Leicester. It grows
to a good lengthy staple, which
is not so bold as the Leicester.
The curves are pronounced,
COTSWOLD RAM S WOOL.
THE SHEEP. 83
•showing what is generally called the curliest of British wools.
Its great value rests in its exceptional silkiness, softness
and pliability, which qualify it to be spun to its extreme
length. The average quality is 44's.
CROSSING. — For crossing with the merino the Cotswold
has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are
that the progeny are exceptionally well suited for the frozen
mutton trade, as the two types appear to nick or blend
together, producing a well-balanced carcass, and covered
with a most valuable crossbred wool of exceptional quality.
For early maturing, few crossbreds are equal to this strain,
and none can stand more hardships nor give better returns.
The wool of all crossbreds is most valuable from a breeder's
and manufacturer's standpoint. For the former it has a good
return in weight of fleece and value per Ib. , and for the latter
a wool capable of being made into high-class fabrics of any
dye. There is no breed of sheep that blends so well with the
merino as the Cotswold ; the lengthy, silky nature of its wool
is improved in fineness, quality and character, whilst density
is improved.
The disadvantages are that the merino ewes lambing
after being put with the Cotswold often die. Cotswolds are
large-headed sheep, and the progeny naturally incline that
way, so that the ewe has great difficulty in giving birth to
the lamb, and thus many ewes lose their lives.
84 AUSTRALIAN' SHEEP AND WOOL.
ROMNEY MARSH.
Few sheep can stand exposure so well as this breed,
having been acclimatized for generations on the bleak marshy
coastal districts of Kent. Although not a handsomely-
moulded sheep, it possesses advantages . above all other
breeds, in resisting foot-rot and fluke. This is their main
recommendation ; and they have proved a succees in heavy,
low-lying land, where all other breeds have become failures.
It is of the coarse long-woolled variety, and is classed in the
demi-lustres, and is a most desirable wool. In New Zealand,
where there is much heavy, low-lying land, the Romneys
have been introduced successfully, and have given excellent
results when crossed with merinos. Few crosses give equal
results, and none better, both as a mutton and wool-bearing
sheep. As freezers they are almost an ideal sheep — useful
weights (about 60 Ibs.), joints well balanced and plump, fat
not excessive and well distributed, and the flesh has an
agreeable flavour.
POINTS. — Romney Marsh has a heavy, thick, massive
head, without horns ; ears well set down on the sides, and
wide apart, thick and covered with white hair, and space
between should be covered with wool or top-knot, but
sometimes this is missing (this would be fatal in the show
ring) ; eyes rather prominent, mild, and inclined to have a
heavy look ; forehead broad, with open expression ; face
arched, bold, and long down to the nose, which is rounded,
with thick nostrils ; jaw deep, strong, and covered with white
hair, the muzzle being dark gives it a bluish appearance ;
neck thick, long, and slightly arched, broad at the base, and
tapering slightly at the head ; back long, but wide on the
loins ; thighs full, which carry most weight ; tail thick and
heavy ; sides rather straight or flat ; belly large or full ;
forequarters narrow, and not deep ; legs thick, strong, and
standing upon large feet.
THE SHEEP.
85
Kerry & Co.
ROMNEY MARSH STUD RAM.
THE SHEEP.
87
COVERING. — The Romney Marsh wool is not well
understood in these colonies ; a mistaken fancy in many
instances has altered the
type. The mistake is that
these wools resemble too
much the Lincoln or Lei-
cester types, the result of
using" those breeds to in-
fuse lustre and extra
strength or coarseness.
The plate is an excellent
specimen of a Romney
Marsh wool as it should
be, being from a high-
class stud ram. It is of
the demi-lustre class, with
a commanding length and
an undulating crimp. The
fibre is much finer than
the Leicester, resembling
more the Border Lei-
cester, and is of a kind,
soft nature, with an ave-
rage spinning capacity of
46's.
CROSSING. — The cross-
bred wool will compare
favourably with any other,
both in its appearance and
qualities. It has a lengthy, bright, crimpy staple, compact
and even throughout, and is a kind, soft handling wool,
with a pliable and pure fibre.
ROMNEY MARSH RAM S WOOL.
88 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
BORDER LEICESTER.
This breed is really a cross between the Leicester and the
Cheviot, and was bred with the idea of improving the latter.
The result was so satisfactory that, by careful management
and cultivation, there was produced a special type, and it is
now a confirmed breed, acknowledged by all the agricultural
societies throughout the world, and is awarded special prizes.
The object of founding it was to produce a good traveller
suited to the Cheviot Hills, the home of the Cheviot, running
into Scotland, and at the same time give a good butcher's
carcass. The Border Leicester derives its name from the
hills in Northumberland, bordering on Scotland, and the
breed of sheep (Leicester) introduced to improve the native
breed — thus Border Leicester.
POINTS. — Head well set on, and perfectly free from wool ;
rather broad between the eyes, diminishing towards the
crown, and not too heavy behind the ears, which would cause
difficulty in lambing ; face, long, with rounded or Roman
nose, and covered with short white hair, but not so wiry as
in the Cheviot, extending back behind the ears ; ears, fine,
soft, set well up, and pointing backwards, but not drooping,
white inside and out (sometimes black spots appear with age) ;
body is very similar to the Leicester, differing only in having
a higher or more rounded rump ; back, broad, level, with
well rounded body ; belly, straight, comparatively light, said
to carry little offal, giving the animal a leggy appearance
when without its wool ; legs, on which the sheep stands
squarely, are bare or free from wool, a little finer than the
Leicester ; should have a light, stately carriage, and is a
good traveller.
THE SHEEP.
89
BORDER LEICESTER STUD RAM.
THE SHEEP.
91
COVERING. — The wool
is of the second demi-lustre
class, and is a great
favourite with the manu-
facturers, as the intro-
duction of the soft and silky
Cheviot strain, blended with
the Leicester, imparts a
kind silky texture, so neces-
sary in a high-class spin-
ning wool ; staples are a
commanding length with a
nice undulating crimp, not
so massive as the Leicester,
but much finer, and an
excellent combing wool,
which can be spun up to
46*3. The wool is used for
making fabrics, mostly for
ladies' wear, viz., delaines,
coburgs, Orleans, moreens,
baize, etc.
CROSSING. - Taking
the Border-Leicester ram
and the merino ewe ; few
crosses give such satisfac-
tory results. The offspring
are hardy, travel well, and
can endure hardships. Un-
der favourable conditions
there is an excellent
butcher's meat, nice, succu-
lent, lean, and not too much
fat. The lambs come on early, and find a ready sale. As a
crossbred wool there is no better put on to the market, having
a soft, kind, silky texture, the merino strain giving quality
and character, with a desirable combing length. Very
frequently the finest wool of this cross is more valuable than
some of our strong merinos for combing purposes.
BORDER LEICESTER RAM S WOOL.
92 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
SCOTCH BLACK FACE.
This is one of the hardiest of British breeds, especially
adapted to withstand great exposure in the rugged uplands,
and will exist on sparsely-grassed, mountainous country,
taking little or no heed of frost or snow. These sheep have
a good carcass of tasty meat, full of lean, and not
overburdened with fat. After the sparse and mean living on
the hills, if these sheep are put on to good fattening land,
their weight increases rapidly, and they find favour \vith the
butcher, who retails the points as prime, and always finds a
ready sale.
The Blace Face is of a wild and suspicious temperament,
but soon settles down when brought more regularly in contact
with man. The ewes are very prolific, and in a flock fully
three parts will give twin lambs.
In their native home these useful sheep, when in large
flocks, have a leader, always a ram, and, when there is danger
near, will form themselves into a body, the leader placing
himself in front, ready to resist an intruder.
POINTS. — Head large, clean, masculine, with Roman
nose ; nozzle thick ; face short, and covered with variegated,
sometimes all black, close, hard hair — frequently the colours,
white and black, are clearly defined, and not running into
each other ; both male and female have horns, the male's
especially being showy, nicely curved, and set close to the
side of the head ; the neck is rather short, but strong, being
nicely crested ; back straight, not too long ; chest deep and
broad, with wide brisket ; shoulders rather little ; ribs are
well sprung and deep, giving the animal a barrel shape ;
hind-quarters deep, fleshy and square, imparting a fine
THE SHEEP.
93
BLACK-FACED SCOTCH RAM,
THE SHEKP.
symmetry to the frame ; strong
legs, especially from the knee up-
wards, well placed under the body,
and of a jet black colour ; feet large,
having open hoofs, with springy
pasterns ; the movements are most
graceful, more so than in any sheep
reared on the lonely and hilly
country.
COVERING. — The fleece is a mix-
ture of wool and hair, the undergrowth
being fine and silky, and the exterior
very coarse, hairy, and kempy. The
wool grows to a great length-
twelve to twenty inches — slightly
wavy, the end of the staple long,
hairy, and, when full grown, will
reach to the ground. Manufacturers
use this wool for making coarse
serges, guernseys, stockings, tassels,
druggets, carpets, homespun \vool-
lens, blankets, and horse rugs.
CROSSING. — Very little crossing
of the Black Face with the Merino
• has been done but, when it has
been tried, the offspring, as a mutton
sheep, resulted most satisfactorily,
and was pronounced prime. Nothing
advantageous could be said of the
wool, and it could not be expected
that the finest woolled breed, put to
SCOTCH BLACK-FACE the strongest, or partly-haired breed,
RAM'S WOOL. would give a desirable wool.
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
CHEVIOT.
This breed derives its name from the Cheviot Hills,
running through Northumberland and Cumberland, and into
the South of Scotland. For 'a hilly country this is a most
valuable sheep, being adapted for an active life amongst the
lightly-grassed pastures where it is a native. Upon good
pastures improvement commences at once, and goes on
rapidly, and it will leave
behind most other breeds,
and be ready for the
butcher in a much shorter
time. The ewes are good
mothers and prolific.
POINTS. — It cannot
be said that the Cheviot
is a handsome sheep,
having a broad forehead,
and wide between the
eyes, with space between
them and the ears ; face
rather short, and covered
with very white, short,
hard hairs — they are often
called the White Faced
breed ; ears long and
pointed and white ; body
long, narrow, with slender
forequarters ; ribs rounded,
and hindquarters good :
legs small, and covered
with wool, also the body,
excepting the face. It is a
hornless breed.
COVERING. — The wool,
which is of a very desirable
\VOOL OF CHEVIOT STUD RAM. class, is frequently known
THE SHEEP.
97
CHEVIOT STUD RAM.
THE SHEEP. 99
as " Blue Wool." It has a nice combing length,
particularly soft, pliable, and of good spinning capacity.
Sometimes there are to be found kemps in the fore and
after pan of the fleece or britch, which are much coarser in
comparison with the rest of the wool. The wool is greatly
used for making tweed and Cheviot cloth.
CROSSING. — On account of the rather irregular body, the
Cheviot is not suitable to cross with the Merino. It crosses
remarkably well with the Leicester, when the carcass improves
all round ; also the wool and fattening qualities increase.
100
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
SOUTH DOWN.
This is the prime mutton breed, and was originally found
on the large chalky downs running through the South of
England.
POINTS. — Head small, hornless and beautifully arched,
and well covered with wool ; forehead not too wide ; ears
placed well up, small, fine and soft ; eyes full, bright and
intelligent ; face rather short, and covered with light brown
or mottled hair ; neck thin at the head, aud enlarging
towards the shoulders, and not long ; chest well let down
between the forelegs, and having a massive, bold appearance;
shoulders large and on a level with the back, and arched
outwards from the top of the breast, giving room
for a springing rib under-
neath ; back flat from the
shoulders to the tail, the
ribs coming horizontally
from the side, the last rib
projecting ; loin broad and
flat ; hips wide, with
broad, massive thighs;
belly straight as the back,
and well protected with
wool ; legs of medium
length, covered with wool
to the knees, and are fine,
without weakness, and
covered with a speckled or
dark brown hair. The pelt
is fine or thin, very pli-
able, but strong.
THE COVERING.— The
WTOO! of the South Down
is the finest of the English
breeds. It is placed as a
short clothing or hosiery
wool. It grows up to 2 in.
SOUTH DOWN WOOL. in length, rather plain or
THE SHEEP.
101
-,
SOUTH DOWN STUD RAM,
THE SHEEP. 103
straight in the fibre, and has a mushy or open and broad
tip, which gives it a wasty appearance. It is inclined
to be of a chalky and harsh nature, and it is well adapted
for making flannels and hosiery goods, as it has little or
no felting prope'rties.
In a well-bred sheep the wool on the back should be
perfectly free from grey or black fibres, whilst all around the
edges of the fleece from neck to britch should be grey, i.e., a
mixture of white and black, but should be confined to the
skirtings, and not to run too deep into the fleece.
As a mutton sheep the South Down is not surpassed,
and is always classed as prime. No mutton is so succulent
or gives such an amount of evenly-balanced joints carrying
the same amount of meat, good and lean, with the fat so
evenly distributed. Early maturity is also a special feature
in their favour. The lambs grow quickly and fatten easily,
and are ready for the butcher at an early age. The ewes are
very prolific and excellent mothers, and will stand a bad
season and appear well when other breeds fail.
For crossing with merino for mutton purposes and for
early lambs there is no breed its equal, the meat being of
excellent quality. Much cannot be said of the wool of the
Downs merino cross ; the fleeces are usually light and short,
and not so kind, and generally a little open. The fibre is
plain, but not so much as in the South Down, the merino
strain giving a little more crimp. It is a useful hosiery
wool.
104 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
SHROPSHIRE DOWNS.
There is a great amount of uncertainty as to the origin
of this most useful Downs breed on the one side, though on
the other the Southdown is without doubt the predominating
parent. Several authorities agree that the Shropshire is the
result of the cross between the Southdown and a shire sheep,
named the Morfe Common sheep, named after a tract of land in
Shropshire. Very probably that was the origin of the now
acknowledged breed of Shropshiredown. It is on a larger
scale than the Southdown, from which it is distinguished
by having a larger and broader head, covered with black wool,
which also covers the legs. The body also is not so compact,
and has not that beautiful symmetrical appearance, especially
the hind part, whilst the covering is longer and not so fine
as the Southdown. The Shropshire fatten easily and mature
early, the mutton being of a superior quality, and always
rinding a ready sale. For hardihood, and as foragers, few
breeds, if any, can compare with this undoubtedly profitable
breed, apparently suited to most varied pastures in different
climes. Ewes are very prolific, generally giving twins, and,
occasionally, three lambs at a birth.
POINTS. — The head is often described as good, and in
proportion to the body, appearing long, not too fine drawn,
and hornless ; poll, nicely arched, and well covered with
short grey wool, often extending well down the face, while
not too long, but bolder than the Southdown, and not so large
as the Suffolk, a kind of intermediate between the two ;
muzzle, well rounded ; ears, thin, fine, and not too large, and
evenly placed on the side of the head, the whole covered with
black wool (sometimes, but rarely, spotted black is the correct
thing) ; neck, thick, not too long ; back, straight and broad
right on to the tail, and quarters rather inclined to be straight
and narrowing down to the hocks, a little out of proportion
with other parts of the body ; ribs, arched, coming well down
THE SHEEP.
105
SHROPSHIRE DOWN STUD RAM.
L5
THE SHEEP.
107
the sides, giving a large body ; front, exceptionally good,
with broad, well rounded chest, coming deep down between
the forelegs, with plenty of room ; shoulders, forward ; girth,
deep from wither to
behind the shoulders,
with good fleshy elbow ;
belly, large, but giving
a little towards the
flanks ; legs, short, and
appearing a little fine
for the body ; wool
should come well down
to the knees and hocks,
the rest black.
COVERING. - - The
wool is a little more
robusr compared with
the Southdown, grow-
ing to a greater length,
and when of a free
growth is well adapted
for combing purposes.
At the present time the
best of the Shropshire
is taking the place of
much of our strong
merino, on accouut of
its better spinning capa-
bilities. The fleece or
body wool should be
perfectly free from grey
or black fibres. The
same should be exclu-
sively confined to the
edges of the fleece,
SHROPSHIRE DOWN RAM'S WOOL. otherwise this breed is
108 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
not pure. The best Shropshire wool is frequently combed
into 6o's and downwards, and used for a kind of soft
delaines and coburgs. The shorter makes excellent hosiery
and flannel goods.
CROSSING. — Shropshire merino takes a foremost place
among crossbreds, the result of many and varied trials in
these colonies. The mutton is of the highest quality, good
square joints, and not over-burdened with fat. For early
maturity no class of sheep has excelled this important breed,
nor is so well fitted to many pastures in the Eastern Division
of N.S. W. Under ordinary circumstances, lambs can be got
ready for the market at six months old, which would be
heavier than any other cross (excepting other Downs
crossbreds) at eight month old.
SUFFOLK SHEEP.
This breed is working itself up into one of the foremost
places in England as a good mutton and wool producer, with
a vigorous constitution. The Suffolk originated by crossing
the South Down with the old Norfolk, a breed little known
and now almost extinct. Norfolk sheep had large frames,
black faces and legs, and were very hardy ; the flesh was fine
in the grain, and of a good flavour, and with a large quantity
in proportion to live weight. The Suffolk in body and
formation resembles an enlarged South Down, and on the
average weighs 25 per cent, heavier. This breed commends
itself to all agriculturists who want to cultivate weight with
quality of mutton and fleece. It is inclined to be lazy, and puts
on weight readily. Under favourable conditions the ewes
will return 60 per cent, of lambs. For early maturity they
are especially noted, and the weight of young lambs is rarely
equalled and never beaten by any other breed.
POINTS. — The general appearance is a level, square,
massive sheep, resembling an enlarged South Down in body,
with a much larger head every way. The head is hornless,
THE SHEEP.
109
SUFFOLK DOWN STUD RAM.
THE SHEEP.
Ill
mostly free from wool ; very wide forehead, and wide between
the eyes ; short, blunt face ; broad nose and muzzle ; ears
thick, rather large and long, and well set on the sides of the
head — quite a contrast to the South Down and other
Downs breed ; neck short, thick, and almost level with the
back ; back long, and has measured 48 in. from the ears to
top of rump, is broad, graceful, and level the whole length ;
ribs well sprung, very well rounded, with deep, po\yerful
shoulders ; broad chest, and
beautifully let down between
the brisket, which is large, and
coming down low between the
front legs ; girth exceptionally
large, and in well-grown sheep
many Suffolk have measured
57 in. around after shearing,
with the tape drawn tight ;
good length from shoulders
to thigh, which is massive,
deeply let down on to the back,
the whole body having a large
and graceful appearance ; legs
thick and substantial, and not
short.
COVERING. — It is in no way
inferior to the best of the
Downs family, and on account
of the large size of the sheep
the fleeces return most satis-
factory weights. The longest is
sometimes used for combing
purposes, but it is not par-
ticularly well adapted for that
purpose, as the staples are
not as distinct and free as is WOOL OF SUFFOLK DOWNS
necessary for this process. It is STUD RAM.
112 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
a real good hosiery wool, being a little open and loose, and
will not felt readily, and is used for making open, fluffy, soft
yarn for flannels, best blankets, shawls and clouds ; and it is
held in high estimation by the manufacturers.
CROSSING. — This breed is deserving of much more
notice than it has received, and a cross with the merino will
compare favourably with the best tried crosses for both size
and quality of mutton, combined with early maturity.
HAiMPSHIRE DOWNS.
Very few breeds of sheep have undergone such
improvement as the Hampshire, and nowr, instead of finding
a small, irregular sheep, cultivation has transformed it into a
really nicely-moulded animal. Its origin is doubtful, but the
probability is that it is the result of crossing the native Hants
with the Wilts s^eep, both of which had striking characteristics
of the Downs families. Now the Hants are a larger sheep
than the Shropshire, with an equal capacity for improvement
and laying on flesh, which is considered to be prime by
connoisseurs. Like most of the Downs sheep, these Hants
can stand severe times, and live on scanty, short grass, and
appear to thrive well. It is one of the foremost breeds for
early maturity, especially the lambs, and to quote an authority,
increasing from 19 Ibs. at birth, till, at eight months, it will
weigh 1 50 Ibs. live weight.
POINTS. — Head large and covered with wool, face short,
full Roman nose, with rounded muzzle ; face varying
in colour from black to dark brown ; ears rather large,
placed well back on the side of the head, and more
pointed than the Southdown ; neck inclined to be long and
THE SHEEP.
113
HAMPSHIRE DOWN STUD RAM.
THE SHEEP.
115
thick ; back, from the wither, straight, with a good, round
rump ; straight flanks, and inclined to be narrow in the
hindquarters, and not
deep from the flank to
the shoulders ; shoulders
not so deep and broad as
the South Down ; belly
straight ; legs rather
heavy, big in bone, with
wool carried well down
to the knees and below
the hocks, and the same
colour as the face.
COVERING. — The fleece
is of good quality, ranking
amongst the finest Eng-
lish, and used for the
same purpose as the
South Down. Skirting, or
undergrowth, is a mix-
ture of black or grey.
CROSSING. — For cross-
ing, the Hants have
proved very valuable, even
when put to the merino.
WOOL OF HAMPSHIRE DOWN The lambs mature early,
STUD RAM. and make good weights.
116 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
THE DORSET HORN.
The Dorset Horn is almost a stranger in these colonies,
and here the opportunities of proving its usefulness are
very limited. When they are well known, few sheep stand
so high in the estimation of practical graziers for their all-
round usefulness. The Dorset Horn has been acknowledged
a pure breed from the early history of British sheep. Their
prolificness alone brought the breed into great prominence,
standing as it does far ahead of all others in that respect It
is claimed that the ewes are so constituted as to yield two
crops of lambs in every twelve months, and then to live above
the average age of sheep.
As to prolificness, a Yorkshire grazier a few days ago
told me that he had known a Dorset flock of ewes to produce
at one lambing 17 per cent, of single, 60 per cent, of pairs,
and 13 per cent, of triplets, with only three or four weakly
lambs in the entire drop. It is from this breed that the
Christmas lambs are produced in England, the ewes being
timed to lamb early in November, giving six or seven weeks
for artificial feeding and preparing them in a good marketable
form. The reputation of this useful breed rests almost entirely
on its prolificness, being also, however, strong, hardy and
active. It is a wilder animal than the South Down. For many
of our small graziers and farmers with fair, light land, and not
too faraway for trucking, there is no other breed that will give
such good results, if they confine themselves to early fattening
for either the export or local trade. There would be a certain
quick return for a lamb, for which there is such a demand.
It would not pay any farmer to cultivate the Dorset for wool
alone. The idea must be to fatten as soon as possible, and
then get rid of them.
POINTS OF THE DORSET. — The head is rather large, with
a pair of massive horns after the style of an enlarged
merino, but not so deeply corrugated ; they are broad at
their base, allowing space for the growth of a little
wool between, developing into a top-knot on the
forehead. The face is long and very broad, with a
rounded, bold muzzle, the whole covered with white, soft
hair. The neck is short and thick, and should be well
rounded across the wither. The back long, straight and
broad, terminating with a well-developed, rounded rump,
THE SHEEP.
117
DORSET HORN STUD RAM.
' .
THE SHEEP. 119
with what may be called a second thigh, but is not so deep
or well-proportioned as the South Down. The ribs are well
sprung, but not so well rounded as most of the Downs breed.
Chest fairly deep, very prominent and full ; shoulders broad,
with good forearm ; bris-
ket broad. The legs are
longer and stouter than
the South Down, giving
a. substantial or rather
heavy appearance, and
are covered with white,
fine hair. Compared with
the South Down, the
Dorset is not of the same
well-balanced or even
proportion as the former,
although the latter is
a serviceable, desirable
mutton carcass of a meaty,
succulent nature.
COVERING. — The wool
is one of the fine types
of the British breeds,
with a fair length, and
may be classed amongst
the fine combings. It
has not the same character
as found in the South
Down, being a little
plainer or straighter m
the curves. It is one of
those white-looking wools,
even more so than any of
the Downs, besides having
an advantage over them
by being freer of grey or
black, straggling fibres.
The grey, when found,
is in small streaks on
the outside, or skirts of
the fleece.
"WOOL OF DORSET HORN STUD RAM.
120 AUSTRALIAN' SHEEP AND WOOL.
CROSSING. — For crossing purposes with the merino, if
carcass alone is first consideration, there is no cross that will
give better results, none so good if fattening lambs quickly is
the main object. There is an especially suitable carcass for
export, being well balanced, with a great proportion of
succulent lean, and a minimum quantity of fat. A sheep
of this cross can be produced at about 12 months, weighing
45lbs. to 55lbs., and with a little more feeding, wrill well repay
for any extra trouble in this direction. If a real mutton producer
is required, there is nothing to equal the Dorset-Shropshire
cross for wreight of mutton at the same age. This cross
is extensively cultivated in England by farmers of great
experience, who claim to be able to put on the market a
greater weight in less time than by any other cross. The
mutton is sold as prime, realising the highest prices, being
a great favourite with epicures.
OXFORD DOWNS.
The Oxford Downs breed may be said to be the most
recent addition to the many celebrated Down families. There
is not the same beautifully-moulded form when compared
with either the South or Shropshire Downs' sheep. The
breed originated by crossing the Cotswold rams with the
Hampshire Downs ewes, the combination giving a rather
irregular or crossbred appearance to the descendants, both
in form and covering. The Oxfords are very good mutton
sheep, having a large carcass, weighing from 70 to 90 Ibs.
at about twelve months old, but the lambs do not mature so
early as most of the other Downs families.
POINTS. — The head is inclined to be large, with deep
ja\vs, well-rounded muzzle ; face, straight, with an open
countenance ; eyes, wide apart and prominent ; forehead,
broad ; ears, heavy, but not large, well set back, with a
rounded space or poll between. The face is covered with a
tawny-coloured, fine hair, sometimes speckled ; the forehead
THE SHEEP.
OXFORD DOWNS STUD RAM,
THE SHEEP.
123
and poll well covered with wool, intermixed with grey, as in
the other Down breeds. Neck is inclined to be long and
thick, giving a loose appearance ; back, long, straight, and
well-rounded, the ribs being well sprung ; rump wrell-
rounded, with a second thigh, giving a large appearance
to hind-quarters ; body large, with fairly arched ribs, and
large and prominent
shoulders, but not
deep-breasted, which
gives the sheep a
rather leggy appear-
ance; belly, straight;
legs set back, ap-
pearing a little heavy
orstrong,and covered
with brownish, short
hairs.
COVERING. — The
wool is the longest
of the Downs, is
inclined to be loose
and open,-and of the
straight formation.
It is a little brighter
than usual in Downs
wool, the Cotswold
having imparted that
quality,together with
a softer and kinder
texture. The body
wool should be free
from black in the
breeding flock, the
undergrowth, breast,
and throat, and round
the head intermixed
with brown - grey
wool.
WOOL OF OXFORD DOWNS STUD RAM.
124 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
THE SHEEP SHOW RING.
There are not many more exciting" times in a sheep-
breeder's life than when he is entering into competition with
his fellow-breeders on a neutral board. For many months
j
his special bred stud sheep have received most of his attention,
daily looking for something he does not wish to find-
imperfection or faulty points in his sheep.
However, having entered his sheep into competition, he
must leave the rest to the judge and stewards, the one to place
them according to merit, and the others to see that the proper
sheep are being judged, and, above all, to see that they
are handled carefully, so as to minimise accidents. It is
to the handling of sheep that this paragraph refers, for
sometimes the unfortunate animal falls into careless and rough
hands, and is frequently unnecessarily knocked about.
How TO HOLD A SHEEP FOR THE JUDGE. — There is
nothing in connection with a sheep show that cuts up a
breeder more than to see his sheep roughly handled. The
men engaged to hold these sheep never consider that they
are in charge of a sheep worth sometimes 1000 guineas, and
frequently more. Generally speaking, this fact rarely, if
ever, receives any consideration from the holder. Gentleness
has a great effect upon sheep, and if they are approached
quietly, with more persuasion than force, there would be no
necessity for the dragging and rough handling which is
frequently seen. The steward, when handing over a sheep,
should impress upon the holders not to be rough, but to take
their sheep as quietly as possible. It would be a further
improvement if the steward had always a spare holder
at hand, so that he could render any assistance to
anyone in a difficulty, for most certainly many of
these highly bred and fed rams require two instead
of one to handle them. However, approach the animal
quietly, and if any way fractious get hold of him by
the horns securely, and do as little struggling as possible.
THE SHEEP. 125
To tussle unduly with a sheep sours his temper, and he will
become very obstinate, probably necessitating his being
•carried, which is no little weight, even for two men. If
.allowed, most of the sheep, when let out of their pen, will
walk and follow the first sheep on to the judging floor.
When there they should be secured by taking hold of the
horns of a ram, or the side of the jaw of a ewe, placing them
exactly where the judge points out. The sheep will now
be standing with his rump to the judge, with the holder
facing the sheep and holding its head. The sheep, if allowed,
will settle itself in its most natural position, when the judges
-consider him. (If its head is held high, or it is pulled or
pushed, the sheep becomes restless and uneasy, causing the
holder to have a bad time). In this position the judge will
satisfy himself as to the value or merit of the respective points,
excepting the under part. The judge now wants the sheep to be
turned up so as to expose the belly, legs, front, and brisket.
To a holder this is the most difficult part of his task,
requiring tact, together with the assistance of a little strength,
judiciously laid out. However, it is not necessary here to
explain the generally dangerous methods frequently practised,
but to explain the readiest, easiest, and safest method, and
there is only one.
How TO TURN UP A SHEEP. — When the holder is
required to turn up a sheep he should take his place on the
near side, retain hold of the horn with the left hand until the
sheep is quiet. The next move is to place the left hand well
round and under the throat, then, with the right hand, take
hold of the near hind leg, lift gently in a direct line with the
side of the sheep, neither pulling nor pushing it to or from
him, but straight. The hind leg now being close on the side,
lift the front of the sheep, and, in so doing, let it go
gently on to its near thigh or rump, when it will fall gently
into its position between the legs of the holder. In
this position the judge can minutely examine every point on
what is called "underneath." A holder handling sheep in
126 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
this way will receive congratulations from the owner, who
knows that all possible care has been bestowed upon his
valuable property, the judge will not be backward in showing
his appreciation, whilst the holder himself will shake himself
by the hand, being self-satisfied that he has run no risks
of injuring the sheep, and that the work was done with
comparative ease. But, under the most favourable circum-
stances, there should be a spare holder ready to assist a
brother in distress.
JUDGING.
This is the responsible office of the sheep show, requiring
confidence, sound judgment, free from fancy, with the courage
to give reasons. There is no regular rule as to where to
begin to examine a sheep, but as the sheep are placed in a
good light, in a row facing the judge, it is natural to
commence at the most exposed part on the top, or back.
This is a part where a weakness might occur, but if good on
the back the sheep is worthy of further inspection. Standing
at the rump, the judge will generally commence at the top of
the neck, gradually opening the wool down to the junction
with the body. The next move is to examine the wither,
always a suspicious place, and one where most defects are
found, and, if satisfied with the shape and covering of wool,
the judge soon realises that he has something good in hand.
In this way the whole length of the back is inspected, right on
to the tail. Proceeding now from the wither in a direct
line to the shoulder point, the next move may be to
examine the back behind the wither, down wide of the
forearm ; this part giving satisfaction is a strong point in
favour of the sheep. Sides are now examined, then the near
flank, or that part between the hind leg and the belly, so on
down the thigh, especially on to the outer thigh or britch.
All the most exposed parts having been examined, the sheep
THE SHEEP. 12T
is turned up, so as to present a full view and easy access to
the under parts. The folds are minutely looked into to see
their form and covering, the arm or elbow receives searching
scrutiny, also the brisket. A large, well-developed covering
of the belly will please the judge, especially if there is a
full, continuous growth, and no thinness where the belly wool
is connected with that part of the body. The face, mouth,,
horns, and hoofs must also be satisfactory.
How TO OPEN WOOL WHEN EXAMINING A SHEEP.—
The great object when inspecting wool on the sheep is to
open it without flattening or crushing the staples, and at the
same time exposing it so as to allow a thorough inspection as
to type and quantity. It has been said many times by
breeders, when offering sheep for sale, that there are not
many buyers that can open and inspect a sheep. It
appears that the general fault is that, instead of opening with
the fingers, they dig them into the fleece, flattening the
staples in all directions so as to make it impossible for the
wool to show in its most natural state. When opening,
guard against pressure being brought to bear ; use the thumb
and first and second fingers of both hands as spreaders ; this
is done by gently dividing the wool, not pressing, but
opening out like an umbrella, keeping the staples straight
whilst laying them down. Avoid any stretching, but when
the wool is open allow it to rest in its natural position,
when the wool can be thoroughly inspected. After the
inspection, the wool, when released, will close without
showing any crushed or pressed appearance. In some
positions, for instance, when examining the sides, and when
standing well over the sheep, the wool is required to be
opened right through from back to belly ; under these
conditions the wool is laid open by the whole length of the
thumbs, assisted with the first two fingers of each hand, when
the wool is parted easily without crushing or pressing.
WOOL.
WOOL.
129
SPECIMENS OF THE FIRST PRODUCED AUSTRALIAN WOOL.
*jg,jg ^Kf
w H^: '
Parramatta, August llth, 1804. The Reverend Mr. Marsden's observations on the breed of his
flock of sheep, with the inclosed Specimens as plucked from the fleeces, humbly submitted
to His Excellency the Governor for his information.
No. 1. Hair from an Ewe, such as has been commonly imported from India and the Cape.
No. 2. Wool from the daughter of No. 1, the father 'half -breed of a Spanish Ram and coarse
woolled Ewe.
No. 3. Wool two removes from No. 1, from an half-bred Spanish Ram.
No. 4. Wool from a Ram, the produce of a Spanish Ram and coarse woolled Ewe.
No. 5. Wool from an Ewe, the produce of another Spanish ram, bred in the Colony, and coarse
woolled Ewe.
No. 6. Wool from a male, the produce of a Spanish Ram, and an Ewe one remove from No. 1
No. 7. Wool from a male, the produce of another Spanish Ram, and an Ewe similar to No. 3.
No. 8. Wool from a Spanish Ram bred in the Colony.
[COPY OF ORIGINAL.]
130 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
WOOL.
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.
BEFORE describing the mode of growth and structure
of the wool fibre, it will be necessary to see the
formation of the skin of a sheep, the composition of
which is similar to human hair, finger nails, hoofs, and
horns. The skin itself has four distinct layers, viz. : Cuticle,
or scarf skin; Rete Muscosum, Papillary layer, and Dermis, or
Corium. The outer part of cuticle is a thin layer as com pared
with the others, and consists of dead, flattened cells ; this can
be easily ascertained by taking a dry skin and brushing it,
when a kind of dust will rise. This dust, upon a minute
inspection, will be found to be nothing more than dead scales,
really the cuticle, or exterior layer of the skin. Directly
under this first layer, or cuticle, is the rete muscosum. This
is composed also of cells, but they are much more rounded
than those on the outside or surface layer. These two layers,
the cuticle and rete muscosum, form what is called the
epidermis. The third layer from the surface is called
the papillary, or cone-like, layer, and is mostly composed
of fibrous, pliable tissues, together with vessels containing
a white fluid, or lymph ; it is crowded with minute
blood vessels, making it very sensitive. The corium, or
deep-seated layer, lies undermost^ and the surface of it is
connected with the papillary layer by means of numberless
air tissues, which collect in clusters or bundles. These
tissues form a kind of network, with channels, through which
the various vessels and nerves find a vent into the papillary
layer, by which means the lymph is distributed. The
papillary and corium layers form what is called the dermis,
in which exist the globular masses, having the appearance of
WOOL.
131
SECTION OF SKIN.
A — Cuticle. B — Rete Mucosum.
C — Papillary Layer. D— Corium.
E -Subcutaneous Adipose Cells. F and G— S doriparous Glands.
H-Hair Follicles.
132 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
bunches or clusters of grapes, where the hair follicles or tubes
are situated, the walls of which are formed of the same kind of
cells as the epidermis, the lower portion of it containing the
roots of the hair. The grape-like clusters are termed adipose,
or fatty cells, which draw fat or oily matter from the blood,
forming it into distinct bodies, which are carried by the
sudoriparous, or sweat-producing glands, to the surface,
where it is thrown off in the shape of perspiration. This
is known as yolk, or sweat, and acts as a preserver and
lubricator to wool fibre. The root of the fibre is thicker
and softer at its lower end than in the upper end or shaft,
terminating in a soft bulb, called the hair bulb. This hair
bulb has a concave depression, and rests on a papilla behind
the follicle, and it is in this bulb that the fibre is formed from
a plastic lymph.
WOOL.
THE GROWTH OF WOOL.
w
133
SECTION OF HAIR FOLLICLE.
A External transparent layer. B - Fibrous layer corresponding to
C - Transparent Basement Mem- Rete Mucosum.
brame. D— Papilla.
E— Bulb of Follicle. F— Sebaceous Glands.
Ax Cuticle of Skin. Bx— Rete Mucosum.
C x— Papillary layer.
COMPOSITION OF WOOL.
According- to SCHERER.
Carbon
Hydrogen ...
Nitrogen ...
Oxygen
Sulphur
1771
20*61
4-0
lOO'OO
MULDER.
50*5
6-8
16-8
20-5
5 '4
lOO'O
134 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
According to DR. BOWMAN.
ENGLISH AND IRISH WOOLS.
Northumberland. Southdown.
... 50-8 ... 51-3
7'2 ... 6-9
... 18-5 ... 17-8
21*2 ... 2O'2
lOO'O lOO'O IGO'O lOO'O
Lincoln.
Irish.
Carbon ...
52-0 ...
49 -S
Hydrogen
6-9 ...
7-2
Nitrogen...
18-1
19-1
Oxygen ...
20*3
19-9
Sulphur ...
2-5 ...
3'°
Loss ...
0*2
1*0
An analysis of Australian Merino Wool made by MR.
HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S., Technological Museum, Sydney,
June, 1900 : —
Carbon 5°>27 Per cent.
Hydrogen = 7 '03 ,,
Nitrogen = 16*20 ,,
Oxygen 22*80 ,,
Sulphur 3'?o »
100*00
The plastic lymph, i.e., a colourless animal fluid, capable
of giving form, is, in the first instance, exuded through a
small tube of the follicle, and in this manner the lymph is
transformed, first into small grain-like particles, then into the
cells, which, in the process of growth and in its passage
through these cells, is elongated into fibres, forming the
central structure of the hair. The cells, which afterwards
form the surface or epidermis of the fibre, go through quite a
different process. They are converted into something more
like flat scales, entirely losing their cellular shape, and as
they are formed each one overlaps its predecessor, just the
same as the scales on a fish. These give rise to irregular,
wavy lines seen around the surface of the sheath. Fibres
take different forms, none exactly round, but appearing more
or less flattened, and if the transverse section is examined it
will be found that it consists of an oval shape, having a part
WOOL. 135
omitted. One of the great peculiarities observed upon
inspecting a wool is that, in the very centre, the cells are
largest, and as you get nearer the outer edge they gradually
become smaller, and appear to be closely crowded together,
or dense, so as to resemble more the bark of a tree. It has
been said that the skin is composed of different layers, and so
is the fibre similarly constructed, and, upon inspection, a
central or medullary part (resembling marrow), a cortical, or
intermediate, and a cuticle or scarf skin forming the
outer part can be seen. Looking at a longitudinal
section of the fibre, there are distinctly seen the same
divisions, the outer sheath of dense, flattened cells or
scales, followed up by a lining of closely-packed fibrous
cells, and in the centre clusters of larger cells. It has
been noticed that in some fibres the central cells are
wanting, and are, therefore, not perfect, which has much to
do with many of the malformations we often see in wool.
The extremity of the fibre is mostly pointed, but, in some
instances, it is divided into small filaments. The base, or
lower extremity of the fibre, is larger than the shaft, and
forms a knob or bulb, composed of cells, which constitute the
growing part of the fibre. The largeness of the bulb is
caused by, or is due to, the larger size of the newly-formed
cells, which have just become detached from layers in which
they were formed. As these cells are pushed forward from
the bed in which they have been formed, they become
smaller, and become more compact ; they form the shaft
of the fibre, with its various parts. The fibre makes its
appearance on the skin before it has a free and independent
existence. When the fibres have become independent
outside or on the surface of the skin, they exhibit many
degrees of fineness in the fleece of wool.
The finest wool is formed in the front part of a sheep,
but it often contains much objectionable foreign matter.
Commercially, the shoulders produce the finest wool, and the
further you look down the flank the coarser is the wool.
136 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
This is accounted for in a rather peculiar way. All wools
require a great deal of nourishment in the shape of yolk or
natural fats, and it is certain that the front of a sheep produces
more yolk than any other part. Now, take a piece of meat
from the shoulder or breast of a lamb, that is when it is
cooked. You will find that these parts contain more
succulent pieces than that from the hind part. This
is caused by the production of yolk, through the vital
working machinery being concentrated within the chest and
between the two shoulders. The heart, lungs, blood vessels,
nerves, and tissues, which really mean the working-
machinery of all living beings, are always in motion,
throwing off heat, digesting food, and reconstructing it
into different forms with which to nourish the whole of the
system or body. As a natural consequence of all this motion,
and the working of these organs, amongst other things, there
is a greater amount of moisture produced in the shape of
perspiration and other greasy matters, which go to feed and
nourish the wool on the shoulders, breasts, and adjoining-
parts more than on other parts, simply because these are
further away from the place where the whole body is
nourished.
All wool fibres resemble each other in structure, differing
only in the smallest details, and all possess the same
method of development. The fibres have three different
structural parts, the first, the central medulla, having round
cells, much larger than any other cells in the fibre ; second,
cortical substance (like bark), with angular cells ; third, the
cuticle (uppermost), with elongated cells, with laminated
plates (scale-like). To show ho\v numerous the cells are
in the cross section of the wool fibres, they are 1500 in
number, and, taking the average length of 4^0 of an inch,
there are no less than 600,000 in every inch of single fibre.
In some fibres these cells are not so numerous, showing
as low as 900 to the inch. It is curious that these three parts
(the medulla, cortical, and cuticle) can all be dissected or
WOOL. 137
parted from each other. The former is more or less rounded,
varying in diameter from TTjlniy to ^oV>o of an inch. They
frequently show a distinct nucleus, and often are found
to have small globules of fat, or other such matter,
surrounding them. Then they become consolidated, through
being pushed upwards from the bulb by the growth
of the cells behind ; they also contain hair. The cortical
consists of a series of cells, which present uneven surfaces
and are spindle-shaped, mostly flat and angular, caused by
pressure. These cells vary from about -oo to TTOTT °f an incn
in length, and from about ^oo to ^on of an inch in
diameter ; they contain also very minute pigment granules,
not more than -50-000 of an inch in thickness, and are arranged
in groups, with colour and number varying with that of the
hair. The cuticle consists of isolated scales, isolated from
the surface of the fibre, which are flattened, lifeless, tasteless
cells, corresponding with the cuticle of the skin, and both
have a common origin. Most particular attention should be
given to the scales, because upon the variation of them,
and the manner in which they are attached to the cortical
substance underneath, depends the difference between wool
and hair, and they give the felting power to the wool. Where
the serrations are free, or unattached to the inner sheath,
they are coated externally by a thin, membranous layer,
composed of flat, imbricated scales. The scales have free
margins, pointing upwards towards the unattached end of the
fibre, and overlap each other, like the scales on the back of a
fish. Taking hair in its natural state, these scales lie flat
upon the shaft, so that it is almost impossible to see them,
and their presence is indicated by the irregular transverse
lines which cross the surface. By treating the hair with any
reagent the free scales are raised and stand out from the stem,
like scales of a fish, and, finally, become detached, so that
they can be examined separately. In a high-class wool these
serrations have a free margin of f, whilst $ is attached to
the stem of the fibre. The cuticle of the hair is formed by
138 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
three to four layers of these cells, and they are so compact
and dense that they have the appearance of a transparent
membrane with serrated edges. In wool these scales are of
the greatest importance, because they are the distinguishing
points between wool and hair, also between the many
different wools. The causes of these variations are worthy of
attention, because, if we understand these causes, they assist
us to modify them so as to produce a variation, which is often
of the greatest value. To understand this, 'it is necessary to
look at the manner in which the hair grows, both upon the
foetal skin, and when the animal has a separate
existence. In the first place, it is dependent on the selection
of the sire and dam, and, secondly, on the climatic effects and
other conditions by which the animal is surrounded, as well
as to a great extent upon the food eaten. It has already been
pointed out that the fibres at the attached end are within the
follicle, which is really an involution of the epidermis itself.
These follicles enclose the fibres like a sack, extending in
short hairs down into the upper layer of the cutis, but in
the longer hairs into its deepest portion, even, in some
instances, down into the subcutaneous cellular fibre.
The walls of the follicle being an involution of the epidermis,
we find that these walls show a similar structure, and
correspond with the layers of the epidermis. There are,
therefore, three separate distinguishable parts in the follicle
walls — first, an external transparent follicle layer, corres-
ponding to the cutis of the skin ; second, a much thicker,
fibrous, and vascular portion, forming the greater portion of
the follicle proper, which corresponds with the rete mucosum
of the skin, and which, in the lower part of the bulb, comes
in direct contact with the cells of the growing fibre and the
papilla ; third, a transparent sheath, called the basement
membrane, of which the papilla seems to be an involution,
and forms an interval covering of the follicle. It is composed
of firm, elastic, and yellowish membrane, and terminates near
the point, wheie the sebaceous ducts open into the hair
WOOL. 139
follicle. Externally, this membrane is connected with the
outer layer of the cuticle of the hair, hence there is no interval
existing between it and the hair. Upon very close
examination this membrane is found to be decidedly cellular,
and the cells are long and transparent, with their axis parallel
to that of the hair. Their nuceli exist only in the part of the
coat, are broader at the end than in the middle, and are
sometimes curved and pointed. At the base of the hair follicle
the inner sheath consists of a single layer of beautiful
polygonal, nucleated cells, which, becoming soft, delicate,
and rounded, gradually pass into the outer layers of the
round cells of the bulk of the hair. The shaft of
the fibre comes in close contact with the walls, or
outside of the follicle, just at the junction of the cuticle and
rete mucosum. At this particular part the fibre is still in a
loose state, and not so compact as it is after it has passed
the hard, scaly surface of the skin, the latter having a
material effect upon the fineness or diameter of the fibres.
The passage of the fibre through the walls, or sheath, of the
follicle takes various forms through the agency of the skin ;
but there are others which require more than a passing
attention, and are worthy of special mention. The very
different formations in a staple, or even a single fibre, are
noticeable. Some have a closely-crimped fibre on the top,
and lower these crimps are much wider apart, showing what
is termed an irregular fibre, or fibres of two or more
diameters. Heat and cold are the causes of these irregu-
larities, and you will find that when the fibres are produced
in summer they are always much coarser than those grown
in cold or winter time. In hot weather the whole skin becomes
relaxed and soft, and as the fibre pushes its way it can do so
with great ease, therefore, it is thick and coarse. On the
other hand, the cold weather has an opposite effect, the skin
becomes closer, more compact, and altogether a stiffer
substance, and the fibre has more difficulty in squeezing
through the outlet on the surface. It must naturally follow
140 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
that the fibres produced under these circumstances must
be much smaller or less in diameter than those grown when the
skin is soft. Inside the enclosing walls of the sheath the cells
which compose the cortical are more rounded and have larger
diameters than when the hair passes out of its follicle. In
the process of growing the cells are carried outwards, further
from their foundations ; they become less in bulk, more
consolidated, and more elongated, rendering the hair shafts
more dense and fibrous. In a similar way the hair cuticle
undergoes a change at the root of the fibres in the bulb,
where the epidermal cells are cast off from the growing
points ; they are round and nucleated (germination), but
disappear, and become flattened and imbricated (tile-like)
scales, wrhich afterwards cover the surface of the fibre.
As a rule, when the shaft of the fibre passes out of the
follicle it is straight and inclined to be stiff, but possessing a
remarkable degree of flexibility when stretched, as well as
having power to bend or wind without injury to its cells,
the cellular formation enabling it at the same time to retain
its circular form when under great pressure. It is also very
elastic, returning readily to its original form, or when
subjected to extra strain drawing out a considerable length,
like an elastic band, before it breaks. It must be noticed that
the follicles do not stand perpendicular in the skin, otherwise
the fibres on leaving the surface would stand erect. The
natural position of the follicle is parallel, therefore the hairs
lie smoothly, i.e., if they are allowed to take their natural
sweep round the crown, which is their natural centre of
radiation. If you take the hair of any animal, a horse, for
instance, it will be seen that it is arranged in various curves
so as to conform with the general outline of the figure of the
body. At the sides of the hair follicles, and passing into the
outer layers, of which the follicles are composed, there are
involuntary muscles, called erector-muscles, by means of
which the hairs are drawn in an upright position when acted
WOOL. 141
upon by the nerves. The contraction of these muscles assists
sebaceous glands to discharge their contents.
The rudiments of the first hairs appear in the human
foetus about the end of the third month, and, just as
in other mammals, are at first solid, knob-like out-growths
of the stratum into the corium. In some instances the
corium shows a slight elevation, preceding the formation
of the rudiments of the hair ; but this is absent in
many instances. The rudiments of the hair, rapidly
elongating, become cylindrical, the following different
elements become noticeable : The majority of the cells are
small and polyhedral (many-sided) in the marginal layer of the
cells and the surrounding tissues. This membrane represents
the rudiments of the glassy basement membrane. Each of
the hair rudiments is from the earliest time surrounded by a
thick layer of a tissue, altogether different from the rest of the
corium, and representing the rudiments of the hair sac ; it is
well marked off from the corium, is composed of a network of
flattened, spindle-shaped, or branched cells, and stands as
a whole better than the rest of the corium ; although relatively
very bulky, it, nevertheless, can be traced to a thin layer
similarly constituted, and situated immediately underneath
the epithelium (lining membrane of cavities within the animal
bodies) of the surface ; that is to say, a layer which gives
origin to the propelling body of the corium. The tissue of the
hair sac grows much more rapidly than the hair rudiment,
and having closed round the deep extremity of the latter,
grows now against the papilla, and thus produces the
inflection and enlargement of the bulb. Henceforth the multi-
plication of cells at the bulb naturally results in the new cells
being pushed up in the axis of the hair rudiment towards the
surface, and, becoming elongated, constitute the elements of
hair substance and its cuticle inner root sheath ; the cells of
he primary solid cylinder represent the rudiments of the cells
of the outer root sheath only. The gradual conversion of the
cells of the bulb into the spindle-shaped, horny scales of the
142
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
substance of the hair, the difference at the bulb of the cell
layers and their conversion into the cuticle of the hair and the
inner root sheath are easily understood from the description
given above of these parts of the adult hair. There is a very
great peculiarity of all epidermal growths, whether it be hair,
wools, nails, hoofs, or horns ; they can all be greatly
modified under various conditions. One of the commonest
variations of wool is the wavy character, so that instead of
standing upright it possesses a curly property, arising from
unequal contraction of different parts of the fibre. Variation
in climate is one of the causes of this character, which is one
of the distinguishing features between wool and hair.
TYPICAL WOOL FIBRE, SHOWING
SERRATIONS OR SCALES.
(See Serrations, paje 231.)
THE WOOL FIBRE.
This subject takes a wide
range, and to make it as inter-
esting as possible and at the same
time equally instructive, it would
be necessary to give a series of
articles. This is the first instalment
wool, and its relationship to its very
near relative, hair. What is a wool
fibre ? This appears to be a very
simple question, especially amongst
those who grow, sell, and other-
wise are closely connected with the
wool trade generally. In the great
majority of answers wool is described
as the covering of a sheep. Tech-
nically speaking, this is incorrect,
because in a great many instances
sheep produce kemps, and even
hair, which are altogether different,
both in their internal and external
structure, and cannot be classified
WOOL. 143
with wool. Also, the covering of sheep which are allowed
to run wild has a tendency to and will actually revert to hair,
which is supposed to be the original produce of sheep before
they were domesticated. To further prove that all sheep do
not produce wool, we must follow them into Asia Minor,
where all the sheep grow a decided hair. This is simply due
to a climatic influence, and however beautifully and perfectly
woolled a sheep may be, if transported to that part, its
fleece gradually will be trans-
formed into hair. As a hair-
producing climate Asia Minor
is not equalled by any other in
the world, and we have only
to look at the excellent texture
and brilliancy of the lustre of
the mohair grown there to
verify this statement. It will
thus be seen that the term
wool requires a different defi- CROSS SECTION OF THE WOOL (A1ERINO)
nition from calling it the cover- FIBKE> SHOWING CELLULAR
FORMATION.
ing of a sheep.
The correct answer is : Wool is a modified form of hair,
differing from hair both in its external and internal structure
by having a crimpy, curvy, or corrugated appearance, whilst
the internal formation is composed of numerous minute cells.
Hair, on the other hand, has a comparatively smooth surface,
whilst the few cells there are are elongated and contain
marrow, and will not stretch, but break off brittle, and
will curl or harle. These crimps and cells in wool give
it an elastic and pliable property, and make the difference
between hair and wool. Take, for instance, a single
fibre of wool and stretch it. Upon examination it will
be found that it becomes gradually smaller and smaller, just
the same as stretching a piece of elastic, and, if a true wool,
it will return readily to its original form when released. If
too much tension is applied, so as to break the fibre, it will be
144
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
seen that where the fracture occurred the diameter of the fibre
has been greatly reduced, and the ends stand out straight.
This elastic property, which makes wool so valuable, may
be attributed rightly to the presence of crimps and cells in the
fibre. Not so with hair, as its formation is different, being
almost devoid of both cells and crimps. If we put hair to the
CROSS SECTION OF THE LINCOLN WOOL FIBRE.
same test as wool the result is altogether different, as, if
tension is applied, we find that hair is stiff, hard, and will
not give, but break off short and brittle ; when the two broken
ends are harled or curled, it will be the same thickness as
the hair before the testing. Thus, it will be seen that the
wool can be distinguished from hair, first, by appearance ;
second, by testing.
WOOL. 145
YOLK.
When the fibre becomes independent of the pelt it pushes
its way through a greasy matter called yolk, which is secreted
by the skin. This yolk acts an important part in wool-
growing, and varies in quality and quantity in different
breeds, merino producing the most. Although of a greasy
or fatty nature, it differs from all other fatty matters, being
composed mostly of potash, and will dissolve in water, and
even absorb half its own weight of water. When yolk is
mixed with water, two parts to one, the substance is thick and
stiff, and is of a pale brown colour, without showing the least
trace of water, and if put into an air-tight vessel will remain
the same for years. Yolk is found in all breeds of sheep,
varying in both quality and quantity ; it even varies in
different portions of the same sheep. It is found in greatest
quantities in the front half of the sheep, and through its
agency the wool here is found to be the soundest. Yolk also
forms a protective covering of the wool in resisting wet, thus
assisting the growth, and rendering the chance of damage
less when it is left in the fleece. It acts as a preservative to
the fibre, making it soft, pliant, and, when in a healthy state,
lends a silky touch. During growth the yolk prevents all
possibility of the fibres becoming entangled, which they
would do if there was any defective supply of this greasy
matter, which further assists the fibres, as it were, to glide
over each other, giving it that freedom so much valued by
manufacturers. The constitution of the yolk varies, rendering
it capable of cultivation. When this greasy matter is in a
healthy state it may be white, light brown, or dark brown,
and if of a free nature, and not any way sticky or pasty, the
wool derives nourishment, the whole growth is encouraged,
and greatly benefited. One objectionable class of yolk is, that
pasty or sticky kind, which appears on the fibres in small
particles. Such yolk has a tendency to interfere with the
length, keeping it stunted, but giving appearance of density,
and adds to the weight of the wool. This increased weight is
14() AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
not altogether real from a yielding point, as when the wool
has undergone the process of scouring, which all wool has to
do previous to manipulation by the manufacturer, will lose
the extra coating of pasty yolk or surplus weight. The
difference in .loss of yolk is great when ycu deal with an
average clip of merino, and one of an extra fatty nature.
The former will lose about 20 to 25 per cent., and the latter
45 to 60 per cent, (exclusive of dirt) when both are thoroughly
cleaned. There is also a good amount of risk in these
sappy merinos in an adverse season, especially a wet
one. Much water in a continuous wet season falling on wool
on the sheep naturally settles in the fleece, and when it comes
in contact with the heavy yolk for any length of time, the
latter is hardened, and so both yolk and wool deteriorate in
quality and yield. Under these circumstances the yolk
sickens, becoming diseased, forming itself into a hard mass,
causing the wool to be discoloured, varying according to the
state of decomposition from a light pink to a dark green.
This colour cannot be removed by scouring, therefore causing
a great depreciation in value, besides injury to the sheep. In
a dry, dusty season also this sap in the wool is in danger of
becoming seriously damaged by the dust settling down
into the wool and coming in contact with the yolk. Thus
both form an additional risk by sticking to the wool,
when it becomes dust-stained, and during scouring such
severe measures have to be resorted to in order to
remove the sticky dirt that, when it comes out of the
ordeal, the wool is damaged, being hard and harsh, the
pliability and, moreover, the softness being destroyed, and
there is never a bright colour. The wool is thus made an
inferior manufacturing article, and of little use except for
inferior goods. A healthy, free flow of yolk will benefit greatly
and encourage the growth of any class of wool, and is one of
the chief factors in wool-growing. Commercially, yolk is of
considerable value, being in demand for making lanoline and
toilet soaps. Lanoline is a medical fat, manufactured from
WOOL. 147
the natural fat or yolk of sheep's wool. By chemical
treatment of the yolk an exceedingly pure fat can be
obtained.
The yolk in its natural state is heated with soda lyes, in
order to saponify the fatty acids. The soap so formed turns
the yolk into an emulsion, which, when diluted with water,
forms the so-called wool milk.
If this wool milk is subjected to centrifugation it separates
like cow's milk, into a cream and a thin milk. The creamy
portion is treated with lime salts, whereby a precipitate is
formed, known by the name of crude lanoline. When heat
is applied to the crude lanoline it is separated into its
constituent parts, fat and water. The fat thus obtained is
treated by a patented method, which frees it from all wax-like
substances, and anhydride of lanoline is the result.
The anhydride is mixed with 30 per cent, of water, and
thereby transformed into pure lanoline.
A FLEECE OF WOOL.
To be correct, a fleece of wool is " the woolly covering of
a sheep, taken or cut off in one piece, and is composed
of staples of wool held together by binders." The dictionary
tells us that a fleece of wool is the covering of a sheep.
Taking this answer in a broad sense it is right, as it is
acknowledged generally that sheep give that beautiful, soft,
elastic fibre called wool. Technically speaking, exception
may be taken to that definition, as very many sheep produce
wool, hair, kemps, and gare in their covering, and as all those
are hairs — each one differing from the other in its physical
structure — the latter three certainly cannot be called wool.
The construction varying both internally and externally, the
colour must also vary a little ; therefore the proper answer is
as before given. Again, if sheep are neglected and allowed
to run wild, however highly cultivated they might have been
at one time, their fleece, or covering, will gradually but
148 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
surely become hair. This certainly cannot be properly
called a fleece of wool, although it was grown on a sheep.
Take another argument : Climate has much more effect upon
sheep and their covering than is generally understood.
Place, for instance, one of our highly-improved merino
sheep in Asia Minor or Turkey in Europe, the wool will, by
degrees, be changed into a perfect lustrous hair, the beautiful,
bright, soft, pliable fleece it once gave us will now be replaced
by a hairy coat which could not be accepted as a fleece of
wool.
The natural growth of a fleece is twelve months, and
if allowed a longer time it will gradually deteriorate in texture,
colour, and condition.
TIPS, OR EXTERIOR FORMATION OF STAPLE.
STUD SHEEP.
Tips alter in formation according to exposure to the
weather and the mode of feeding. These figures are taken
from sheep which have been highly fed and carefully
sheltered, and in such instances the quality of wool is
indicated with tolerable accuracy through the formation of the
tips. The ends of the strands, or tips, are connected into
larger and smaller bodies by the quality and action of the yolk,
and correspond to the folds of the skin and the action of the
body. According to the different sizes of those folds and
actions already mentioned, the small-bodied or smaller-shaped
staple, or the large-shaped staple, is formed. The small-
formed tip is the most perfect, as it seems only to occur
with the cylindrical form of the strand, and, as a natural
consequence, necessitates a dense growth of a very perfect
and fine wool fibre.
PEARL TIP. — This is found only in the very superior
merinos, such as the finest Mudgee, Tasmanian, and Saxony.
It appears in the shape of small heads, which do not exceed
WOOL.
149
PEARL. RAPE SKKI). CAULIFLOWER. BLUNT.
MOSSY.
CLUB.
POINTED. ROUND OR LARGE
FORMED.
TIPS OR EXTERIOR FORMATION OF STAPLES.
150 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
the form of hemispheres. The form of the staples is always
cylindrical, and is determined by the very small groups
of fibres.
RAPE SEED TIP. — This is very little removed in
value from the former, and indicates a slightly larger staple.
This form of tip is also a special peculiarity of superfine
wools. A fleece displaying such tips appears as if it were
covered with rape seed.
CAULIFLOWER TIP. — When washed on the sheep's back
it appears like a cauliflower, hence the name.
BLUNT OR FLAT-FORMED TIP — This forms the tran-
sition of the large-bodied tip. The circular form is diminishing
and does not cover the hemisphere of the staple, but is formed
of cylindrical strands throughout. It implies a thick growth,
as well as a uniform wool fibre. The yolk is often of a thick,
pasty nature, mostly found in the Negretti and American
races. It is faulty when the staple approaches a club
formation. The density of the wool decreases the more the
club formation of the strand increases. The grease does not
dissolve readily, and appears to be deposited in little lumps.
THE MOSSY TIP. — This is invariably produced, if
necessary care is not bestowed, when the sheep are constantly
exposed to all weathers. The thick, gluey grease causes the
tips of the staples to adhere together, then it runs, and gives
the surface of the staples a mossy appearance. In some cases
the strands completely separate at the ends, and the staple
appears partially dissolved. But often, in spite of all this
faulty appearance on the exterior, the inner formation of the
staple may still retain its natural condition.
THE CLUB TIP. — The tops of the staples are matted
together to a certain depth down the inner staple ; the surface
also is covered with thick, pasty yolk. All the single staples
of the whole fleece are so strongly glued together that they
will separate from one another only by the movement of the
body. Pressing the hand upon the wool gives the same
WOOL. 151
sensation as if a board is being touched, and the wool can
only be opened by using- a little force. Such wool loses much
weight in scouring, and gives a great percentage of noil
when combed.
POINTED TIP. — This style of tip is very objectionable,
indicates thinness, and the wool is always strongly marked.
The yolk is mostly of a thick nature, penetrates into the wool,
and sticks the thin single strands together, causing them to
become pointed. To this may be added a want of uniformity
of the wool fibre as it passes into the thread, and the single
strands are wound into long, spiral-formed, twisted points.
Indifferent care and climatic influences act most ruinously
upon this form, because the rain and dust can penetrate deeply
into the wool, making it of very little value.
ROUND TIP, OR LARGE-FORMED TIP. — This is with-
out fault, except when the single staples are formed
cylindrically, the wool fibres are equal to the ends, and are of
equal length. Subjected to these conditions, the wool appears
rounded in its surface, hence the name.
TIPS OF FLOCK SHEEP. — In flock sheep the exterior of
the fleece is subjected to more varied climatic conditions than
the stud sheep, the former having no protection from the
weather, simply roaming about in all seasons, whilst the latter
are protected, and this altogether alters the outward
appearance of the fleece. These variations of season
alter the tips of the staples according to the length,
density, and quality of the wool. If a proper selection is
made of the type of the sheep suitable to the country, then
the exterior does not suffer to such an extent ; but, if there is
any neglect in this important matter, then both the exterior
and interior of the fleece will most certainly be disadvanta-
geously affected. In the Riverina district we expect to see a
rather open and mushy tip, even among the deep-grown
merino wools, a type suited to that district. But, if it is a fine
152 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND AVOOL.
combing wool, at all inclined to be a little open or wanting in
density, then the whole fleece suffers, the tips will be of a thin,
wasty character, extended well down the staple, the formation
being one of the most objectionable. Out West, on the
open, exposed plains, where there is much dust and no
protection from the sun, the fine wools will come out even
worse than in Riverina. The whole extent of the Eastern
Division produces a different tip in different districts,
according to their varied temperatures.
LEVEL OR SQUARE TIP. — This is the most perfect tip
an unhoused sheep can have. In this form the tips cover the
same area as the staples, showing closeness and compactness,
and should be found in breeding ewes. The level tip
indicates density and body, and is a sure sign of a sound,
compact growth, the result of good, careful selecting, or
classing of sheep.
MIXED TIP. — This kind is a mixture of yolky and dry
tips. The ends show slightly wasty or mushy, intermixed
with a few heads of yolk. The climate has not injured them
to a great extent, through the presence of yolk. Such wool
carrying the mixed tip is generally found from the middle to
the southern parts of Liverpool Plains.
TIPPY. — A wool with a superabundance of tip ; also a
very heavy, yolky tip, is called tippy.
THIN TIP — When a staple is fine down, or becomes
smaller towards the end : The wool may be of high quality,
and in a healthy state, and have a small black, yolky head.
In breeding, such wool-producing sheep should not be
encouraged, as it is an indication of want of body, or
compactness, and under adverse conditions the wool will
become light and feathery.
FUZZY OR NOILY TIPS. — This is a very large-headed
tip, the openness or fuzziness appearing quite out of
proportion to the staple, even in a shafty wool. The sun
having dried up the yolk as it rises to the extremity of the
WOOL. 153
staple, causes the fibres to perish, when the ends split and
spread. The splitting of the ends of the fibres makes the tips
much larger or more out of proportion, or tip-heavy, on
account of the many ends caused by splitting. In a shafty
wool these large, fuzzy tips are combed out by the combing
machine, still leaving a nice length of the sound wool ; but
in a medium or shorter wool the damage is more severe,
causing a depreciation in the value and a general inadaptability
of the wool for the better class of manufacturing purposes.
LOCKY TIP. — The tip is very thin, the staples being
mostly small-bodied, and in the wool generally there is a
great want of density. Under such conditions the wool is
open, allowing the sun every opportunity of withering up the
small staple, often half-way down. Wet will also cause a
locky tip, causing the defect even to a greater extent than in a
dry season.
A STAPLE OF WOOL. — Means that a great number of
fibres form themselves into natural bodies or clusters during
growth. These staples show the length of the wool by which
the buyer readily makes his selection for his requirements.
Staples take a great variety of forms.
BINDERS. — Are the fibres connecting the staples so as to
form a piece or fleece of wool. These binders play an
important part in connection with wool, and, according to
their position on the staples, so, approximately, the age of a
sheep, from which the fleece was cut, can be told.
In a hogget wool these binders are connected with the
curly end of the staple, and as it is being drawn the binders
are distinctly seen clinging to the tip. In the course of
drawing out the staple the binders become separated from it,
although they are the same length as the staple.
The succeeding year these binders have no connection
with the tip, but are connected with the staple a little lower
down. In the following year the binders will be attached
about half-way down the staple, and as the sheep advance in
154 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
age these binders are connected near the base of the staple.
When the sheep is over age the staple can be drawn out
almost independently or free of binders.
CLEAMERS. — The name given to small, fatty, dirty,
short, thin locks of wool found on fleeces. When found on
fleeces it is a clear indication of neglect on the part of the
sweeper of the shearing board in not keeping a clean floor
where the shearer operates. After a shearer has divested the
sheep of its fleece there is always a little trimming required,
when all the small, dirty locks formed on the inside of the
hind and fore legs and brisket have to be clipped off or
removed. If these are allowed to remain on the shearing
board, and not swept up as they should be, they find their
way into the next fleece, and, being fatty and sticky, naturally
cling to the wool. Another cause is the result of indifference
displayed by many gentlemen in charge of the shearing
board, by allowing the shearer to stand on the fleece whilst
he is trimming the sheep, when all these short, fatty locks
fall on to the fleece. To keep the fleeces free from cleamers
it is necessary to keep a clean floor, and to pick up the fleece
and take it away before the shearer commences to trim
his sheep.
Frequently cleamers are found in clean, scoured fleece
wool, which show out prominently, being of a yellow and
greenish colour. When present, buyers take exception to
them ; therefore the value of the clean wool suffers.
A COMBING WOOL — A wool which can be combed.
Technically speaking, this is the only answer that can be
given, although in the trade generally it would be looked
upon as insufficient to convey the proper meaning. Through
the great improvements of the last 20 years in the combing
machines, wools of all lengths can be combed ; even noils
combed out of Lincoln wools have been combed over again,
and yielded a fairly good top. Under these circumstances
the above answer will cover all technicalities, and will be
quite correct to quote.
WOOL. 155
Formerly only the deep-grown English wools, such as
the Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold, etc., were considered
combings, which, from their lengthy staples, were alone
capable of passing through the combing machines. A few
years later further improvements in machinery were introduced
with the view to comb wool of shorter growth or length,
which were most successful, causing a revolution in that part
of the manufacturing. At the present time there are machines
capable of combing wool, however short. It may be said
that the manufacturers when manipulating wool in its early
stages of manufacture really determine what is a combing
wool. However, to us in this great wool-growing country, where
it is prepared for the market and not for the manufacturer,
something more definite is required than " a wool which can
be combed." We understand when the term combing is used
that there must be some distinction between it and a clothing.
That great distinguishing point is in the length, the longer
wool of a clip being a combing, and the shorter the clothing.
There is no hard and fast rule as to the length of combing ;
the thumb rule is an old-fashioned method in deciding
between a combing and a clothing. Formerly it was
occasionally seen, and is now, on some stations, that
the wool-classer measured, and measures, the wool
by the aid of his thumb. Any sufficiently long to reach
from the tip of his thumb to the first joint he puts into
his combing ; any not coming up to that standard goes into
the clothing. There are other points to be considered besides
length in the various types of combing wools, and, as in all
other wool properties, the differences are in degrees. For
a typical combing, the wool must have a fair length, be
particularly sound, with freedom, elasticity, as free as possible
from noil, in the shape of a mushy, cloudy, or kind of
crossed or interwoven growth, and should have a good,
bright colour.
Taking the other extreme, an undesirable type of
combing is anything hard, stiff, or unyielding, inclined to
156 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
tenderness, mushy, fuzzy, open, wanting in body, with fibres
intermixed, crossed so as not to pass through the minute
steel teeth of the combs freely ; also of an indifferent colour.
A manufacturer avoids this class of combing, as it does not
come within his idea as a wool adapted for that process,
except for inferior purposes, for making a cheap, low class
of goods.
TOP — The name given to wool after it has undergone
the process of combing, when all the noils, knots, and
moits are combed out or removed, afterwards taking the
form of a ribbon or sliver, and rolled into a large ball
of pure wool. In this form all the loose, mushy, downy,
faulty fibres have been removed by the delicate steel teeth
of the combs, leaving but one long ribbon of pure wool,
with all the fibres lying free and parallel, ready for further
manufacturing stages.
SLIVER. — Is a manufacturers' term, given to a wool after it
has passed through the combing machine, when all the weak,
mushy, perished fibres, together with moits, are combed
out, leaving a long, ribbon-like form of combed wool, which
is called sliver. Sliver also applies to a clothing wool, after
it has passed through the carding machine, when it takes the
name of sliver, or a carded sliver. In this state the sliver has
a mixed or entangled appearance, and, although the fibres
have been greatly reduced in length in the carding process,
they cling together, forming a lengthy, cloudy-looking
ribbon or sliver of wool.
NOILS. — Are all the weak, downy, mushy, or faulty,
knotted fibres, together with any moits, combed out by
the combing process. Although noils consist of faulty wools,
they are of considerable value, according to their quality and
condition, and are used in the woollen trade, especially for
hosiery and for making flannel, and, if of low quality, for
low blankets, rugs, etc.
WOOL. 157
A CLOTHING WOOL. — A short wool, a distinguishing
name from combing, or a wool better adapted for the carding
than the combing process. There are a great many varieties
of clothing wool, each having its own special adaptability for
making the great many different kinds of fabrics coming
within the range of the woollen manufactures. Fine cloths,
such as broad, officers, billiard, and livery, all require a
much higher class wool than a carpet, rug, or blanket. In
the former cloths it is imperatively necessary that the wools
should have the very best felting properties, as well as fine-
ness, whilst for the latter short wool of most inferior quality,
and without any felting properties, is used. A high-class
clothing wool will be short, in a truly-bred wool it is very
short, with a very closely-crimped fibre, showing out distinctly
and true throughout ; these generally indicate the presence
of serrations, which, together with elasticity, give the felting
power ; there must be a healthy, compact growth, free, kind,
soft, silky, and having a good, bright colour, so as to take
the dye, thus imparting a glossy appearance. A low class of
clothing wool will be straight or plain, wanting in crimp,
hard, and is unyielding, denoting a deficiency in felting
qualities, which are not required in low woollen goods.
QUALITY.
QUALITY. — Implies that the wool, having all the character-
istic wool properties best developed, possesses the most
quality, viz., soundness, character, trueness in the fibre,
evenness in its formation from bottom to top, elasticity,
pliability, fineness for its breed, crimpy structure, colour,
softness, freedom of growth, density of fibre, density of
growth, body, draught, and silkiness. Whenever any of the
above-named properties are imperfect or deficient, then there
is a want of quality. Quality applies to all the pure-bred
wools, and not to merino alone. It is often argued that
quality relates to fineness alone. This is a great mistake,
because a merino wool can be over fine, when the fibre will
be found to be delicately fine, effeminate, tending to unsound-
158 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
ness, with an almost straight formation, the crimps scarcely
distinguishable, or almost bred out. To such wools the
term quality cannot be applied, the extreme fineness being its
only quality ; all the other properties will be found to be
deficient. Let us now look at the massive, coarse Lincoln
wool. Who could conscientiously say that that type of wool
could not possess quality, simply because it is our strongest
wool? The same argument holds good in reference to our
strong merino, and he would be a bold judge who would tell
the breeder that there was no quality in his wool, simply
because it is of a strong type. All pure breeds of sheep can,
and do, produce wool of quality, according to their breed.
Every breed has its own wool characteristics, to which, when
properly developed, the term quality can be correctly applied.
COUNTS OR SPINNING QUALITIES. — As many hanks of
560 yards as can be spun from lib. of scoured wool represents
the spinning quality or counts of that wool. For example :
A hank of yarn, or 560 yards of yarn, would represent a I's
spinning count or quality. Sixty times 560 yards would
represent the spinning count of 6o's.
WHAT IS A Go's MERINO?
Of all the different qualities the 6o's are the most
frequently quoted, which really serve as a guide to the value
of merino wools. In describing a 6o's merino top, it is
most requisite to know what kind of combing wools are used
in their production. The wool is not by any means fine,
but of the medium to strong class, with a good, full, bold,
lengthy staple, generally about three to four inches
long ; free, sound, soft, and bright. Such a wool would
make a super 6o's, so often quoted from Bradford. The flocks
known to produce this style of wool are the Wanganella,
Boonooke, Uardry, Quaimong, Yarrawin, Collaroy, Spring-
field (Goulburn), Haddon Rig, Gingie, etc. A common
6o's is made from wool much of the same quality as super
6o's, but not so free from moits or as good in colour.
WOOL.
159
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CHARACTER — Signifies that the wool possesses strongly-
marked distinctive qualities of its breed. Usually this term
is applied to wool having a distinct, crimpy structure, that
only wools of that formation have. But the real meaning
must go much further than that, as some wools are beautifully
crimped or curved, but have nothing else to commend them
as a high-class wool. Every breed of sheep has different
characteristics in their wool, by which they are distinguished
from each other. A characteristic merino wool is known
by its fineness compared to all other breeds, but must also
have a greater number of curves in a given space ; it is also
necessary to be elastic, pliable, soft, and of a bright, not
lustrous, colour. Such are the properties expected to be
found in a merino wool, to which the term character can be
applied. Other breeds have their own special characteristics
— for instance, take the other extreme case of our strongest
wool, the Lincoln. A Lincoln wool possesses a lengthy,
full, bold, massive staple, with a few curves, about three
to five to the inch, and of an undulating or slightly wavy
formation, with a brilliant, glossy, or lustrous appearance ;
the fibres appear plain or straight, yet of a silky texture, all
of which are characteristic of a Lincoln wool. Character,
when rightly applied, may be said to indicate quality, to
which it is closely allied.
FINENESS. — That wool fibre having the smallest diameter
is the finest, thinnest, or smallest. Fineness is a relative
quality, and we speak of fine wool only in comparison with
wools of a thicker or larger diameter. Fine and coarse have
the two extreme opposite meanings, and are used when
describing or contrasting the many varieties of wool. Coarse
is used as a depreciative term, whereas fineness points out the
higher quality of the wool. Manufacturers, wool merchants,
wool buyers, and wool sorters mostly possess the ability
to distinguish the degrees of graduation of the finest or
coarsest without the assistance of artificial means. Many
authorities contend that this distinguishing power is a special
WOOL. 163
gift, but reasonable intelligence, combined with constant
practice, will greatly assist to improve the ability to decide
the degrees of fineness. In former times there was a greater
distinction in the different qualities, which were confined
to two sorts, fine, and strong or coarse ; now the graduations
are more numerous, and more difficult to define, the result of
the cultivation of so many intermediate breeds of sheep.
The degrees of fineness vary imperceptibly, and may be
contrasted with the gradual change from daylight to dark.
SOUNDNESS OR STRENGTH. — When a wool will stand a
reasonable amount of tension, or strain, without showing
signs of weakness, it is said to be sound. This is one of the
most valuable wool properties, for without soundness there
will be a general deficiency in its other characteristics. Fora
sheep to produce a sound wool it must have been in a perfect
state of health during the natural 12 months' growth, and must
have had regular and sufficient food and water. When sub-
mitted to tension, the wool fibre exhibits a great amount of
strain, and when broken the fracture takes place at the junction
of the scales or serrations which are pulled out at their bases.
The scales themselves are broken.
CRIMPY OR CURVY — Implies that the fibres have a
crimpy or curvy formation, and this is one of the principal
peculiarities of merino wool-fibres ; these crimps or curves
are placed transversely across the fibre, and are true indica-
tions of quality. They assist also to impart that elastic
property to merino wool, which is far in excess of
that possessed by any other class or breed. In a
superior merino wool there are 24 to 30 crimps to the
inch, and sometimes more. Fine, 20 to 24 ; medium,
16 to 20; strong, 12 to 16. In the English breeds the
South Down, which is the finest, contains 14 to 18
crimps to the inch; medium, n to 14; and Lincoln, CRIMPS
3 to 5. These crimps take different shapes or forms, CURVES.
1()4 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
and, accordingly, wool is judged to a very great extent by
their formation and number in a given space. The crimps
are never spiral, but undulating, which in the merino is an
especial feature — the finer the wool, the more numerous these
minute waves or crimps are, and when they are even, true
and distinct, indicate character and breeding also. Though
the crimps of a single wool-fibre are not so regular as when
in the strand or staple, yet they are of the same nature in the
same fibre. When the single curve is in the form of a half-
circle — i.e. , when the height of the curve is equal to half its
diameter — this formation indicates all superior, well-bred
wools.
NARROW CRIMPED— When the height of the crimp is
much higher than its diameter. This is not a desirable form
for manufacturing purposes, being inclined to be curly, making
it difficult to spin.
FLAT CRIMPED. — The height of the crimp here is less
than one-half of its diameter, making the structure more
undulating.
OVER CRIMPED. — In this formation the single crimp is
almost circular.
EXTENDED CRIMP. — The term given when the crimps
take a more undulating form than the flat-crimped fibre.
PLAIN CRIMPED. — In this class the crimps are so undu-
lating as to be scarcely discernible. This formation is seldom
found in merinos, but mostly appears in the English wools.
SMOOTH OR FLAT CRIMPED. — A term used when the
curves do not come up to the form of half- circle. Having
great uniformity and trueness, the curves unite closely
together. The staple is always cylindrical in form, and
mostly of great strength and lustre. The yolk is less in
quality, thin and clear. The smooth form of staple is best
among the flat serrated wools, and is mostly found on
combing wools.
WOOL. 165
WISTENED OR FLAT CURVE. — Such are wools whose
curves do not reach the form of the half-circle. It is generally
the case that when the form of staple is cylindrical the wool
fibres always exhibit a very dense growth, as well as great
strength and uniformity. The form of the staple is always
large bodied.
CLEAR. — The staple is called clear when the structure of
a perfect wool fibre is even, true and uniform, and the curves
of the same are distinct and easily recognisable. The form
of each crimp or curve is still normal, and although they are
uniform they are found to be much closer than in the watery
type. The union of the several strands is not so intimate,
and the form of each crimp or curve stands out clearly. The
staple is cylindrical in shape, the growth of the fibres very
close upon the skin, and of equal length and strength. The
staple is small bodied, and the wool of great value.
ELASTICITY. — Elasticity implies that a wool will stretch
or extend, and when released will return readily to its former
or natural state. This is one of the special features in a true
wool, which is accounted for by its external or curvy
formation, and the internal or cellular structure. When
tension is applied to wool, the curves are straightened out,
giving it its natural length, and, by continuing the tension, the
glutinous spindle-shaped cells are stretched also, which,
together with the curves, give the wool its elasticity, which
is one of the most distinguishing points between wool and
hair. If too much tension is applied, the cells are fractured,
and then the elastic property is destroyed, and the wool takes
a permanent set. It is also understood that moisture in the
shape of yolk has a certain amount of influence on strength
and elasticity.
FLEXIBILITY OR PLIABILITY. — A term used to imply
suppleness, or a wool that is easily bent or will give. This
term is closely allied to elasticity, the difference being that it
possesses, besides its elastic properties, that of yielding and
166 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
bending" readily ; in other words, is more supple. It is very
noticeable that some wools have elasticity, but have not that
softness or silkiness found in other classes. This difference
might be caused through want of a proper healthy yolk
supply ; and it is wanting in some breeds of imported
merino, the result of too much pampering, housing,
and artificial feeding. Pliability is a most important
feature in the spinning and weaving processes, whether
for the manufacturing of fabrics made from combing
wool or woollen cloths made from shorter wools. Pliability
is also a very necessary quality for felting purposes, the
elasticity and suppleness making the wool entangle or cling
together more readily than a wool of a stiffer and harder
nature ; therefore, its great value for manufacturing purposes.
SOFTNESS. — A wool kind to the touch, smooth and yield-
ing is called soft. This is one of the most valuable qualities
of wool, principally a climatic effect, found mostly among
sheep grazing on pastures situated on elevated country, where
the air is free and bracing. Under these conditions, there is
a good supply of free yolk, which imparts a kind, silky feel.
COLOUR. — When speaking of the colour of wool,
we imply brightness. Among wool characteristics, colour
is one of the most important factors, and brightness
must be considered as the predominating feature of colour in
wools generally. There is no other property varies so
imperceptibly as colour, not even the degrees of fineness.
Even the wool of a single sheep when scoured gives a great
many different shades. Different breeds of sheep produce a
variety of brightness, a colour from the most brilliant lustre
down to the chalky white, whilst the faulty colours are
equally numerous. The original colour was black, which is
the predominating colour of wild animals, and many by
domestication have changed into white and bright, with their
numerous graduating shades.
WOOL. 167
TRUENKSS — Applies to the structure of the fibre. That
having the same diameter throughout, the crimps or curves
uniform in shape and evenly set apart throughout the whole
length, is said to be true.
EVENNESS. — Relates rather to the whole covering or
fleece than to the formation of the single fibre. A fleece
might not be of high-class quality, but if it be uniform,
whatever the type may be, it is called even. In the sheep
judging ring there is great consideration given to evenness
of covering, as the same type of wool is expected to be
found on one sheep. It must not be taken for granted that
a sheep produces exactly the same quality in every part.
The finest wool grows on the shoulders, and the lowest or
coarsest on the britch ; and when considering evenness in
one fleece, the term is used in a comparative sense.
REGULARITY. — Signifies that the entire growth is uniform
in its growth or length. Neither trueness, evenness, nor
general wool characteristics are taken into consideration, but
simply the growth.
FREEDOM OF GROWTH. — This characteristic implies that
all the fibres in the staple must be of a free, independent
growth, lying parallel throughout their entire length. For
combing purposes freedom of growth receives great con-
sideration from the manufacturer, as such wools pass through
the different machines, especially the combs, more easily or
with greater freedom ; therefore, there is less noil than when
the wool has to be torn in the process of combing.
FREE — A term used to denote that the wool is free from
moits or foreign vegetable matter, and relates more to wool
in the scoured than in the greasy state.
DENSITY IN FIBRE — Implies that physical properties of
the fibre are of close and compact structure. If two fibres
are of equal length, and equal in weight, that fibre with the
smallest diameter will have the greatest density. In
other words, there is the same quantity of wool in a smaller
1()8 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
space, denoting a closeness of the constituent parts. Take an
illustration in timbers, viz., corkwood, or kurragong, and
myall. The two former have open, loose, or spongy
formations, almost devoid of density, whilst the myall is hard,
close, compact, or dense in the grain. This formation is
found only in the best classes of wool, and is a most
important and valuable property, especially to makers of the
very highest class of fabrics.
DENSITY — Alludes to that growth of wool having the
greatest number of fibres in a given space as being the most
dense. This is a valuable feature from a breeder's point,
inasmuch as it indicates a close, compact growth — in other
words, a heavy fleece. The manufacturers prefer a dense
wool which indicates careful ness of breeding, with a minimum
quantity of waste and dirt, on account of the closeness of
growth which further protects the various properties so valu-
able for manufacturing purposes. Sheep judges pay great
attention to density, which is the true indicator to the wool-
bearing capabilities of the sheep. When the wool opens
freely and easily, showing too much of the pink skin, it
denotes a want of density. On the other hand, when the
wool feels solid, resists opening, and very little of the skin is
to be seen when opened, density is assured. In some of our
stud flocks there are as many as 60,000 fibres in a square
inch of felt, but if we put our Australasian stud flock down at
40,000 to 45,000 fibres to the square inch of pelt, we shall be
much more correct as an average. Even those numbers
appear almost incredible, but when we consider that each
single fibre has a separate tube follicle, in which it grows, the
numbers do not then appear so alarming. The studmasters
may be given the credit of having arrived at a very advanced
stage of wool production by scientifically increasing density.
BODY — Means that the staple appears, and is full, bold,
compact, and vigorous, something solid and substantial,
according to the breed. This is a sure indication that the
sheep has had plenty of good, succulent feed, and has enjoyed
WOOL. 161>
perfect health. It is a true saying that wool goes in at the
mouth in the shape of food, and, according to its supply and
nature, so depends the greater or lesser substance of its wool ;
if the sheep have had a copious supply, then the wool will
have substance or body ; if there has been a scarcity, then the
staple will have a thin or hungry appearance. The term body
can be used when speaking of combing, as well as clothing
wools.
DRAUGHT. — Manufacturers use this term when a wool
will stand an extra amount of tension, or capacity of being
drawn out to a greater extent than the average wool. Such
wools are of a particularly sound, pure, clear, healthy, compact
growth, with body or substance, applying to short as well as
long wools. These wools are selected for making warp yarns
of the better class of fabrics, which are subjected to extra
strain and friction in the course of weaving.
SILKINESS. — When a wool has a soft, supple, smooth
touch and bright appearance, it is said to be silky.
A silky quality is not always confined to a fine
wool ; the massive Liecester and Cotswold have a repu-
tation for their silkiness. This property is not found
so much in highly-bred and housed sheep as in the general
flock, especially when the latter run on sparse pastures. It is
also the result of a bracing, temperate climate ; that is the
reason why we find wool from such districts possesses a
much more silky texture than the wool usually grown on the
flats and open plains. In New South Wales the wool from
the New England and more or less in the eastern districts
have a more silky nature than those from other districts.
The western district of Victoria has a wide reputation for
the silkiness of its wool, which is equalled by that from the
ordinary Tasmanian flocks.
SHAFTY. — That wool having a full, bold, lengthy, close,
compact, free growth, is called shafty. This term, when
speaking of the merino, alludes mostly to the strong or deep-
grown class, the same as is found amongst some of the
170 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
Riverina flocks, such as the Wanganella, Boonooke, and
Uardry. This type is cultivated extensively in South
Australia with great success. In several of the flocks there
is a most perfect shafty wool, and, although strong, is full of
quality.
DEEP GROWN— Implies that the wool is of the strong
type, with a great depth of staple. This term is a very near
relation to shafty, the only difference being the bulkiness of
the staple, and not the quality and length. A deep grown
wool may be of the same quality, and even length, as a
shafty wool, but the staple formation is not so large or bold.
For example, a deep grown staple will not be half so dense
as a shafty staple. Take a shafty staple and divide it into
two parts, and it will be a deep-grown but not a shafty wool.
BROAD-HAIRED. — Indicates that the wool is of a coarser
type than the average, and that the formation is tending to
.straightness or deficient in crimps or curves. The stronger
breeds of merino sheep produce most of this type, which is
-often in demand by manufacturers.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOUND AND STRONG WOOLS.—
Usually these two terms are used with the same meaning.
Strictly speaking, there is a great difference in their respective
meanings when speaking of wool. The term sound can be
applied to all wool, whether fine, medium or strong, whilst
the term strong alludes to a particular and acknowledged
grade of wool, which may or may not be sound. A fine
wool, however short, may be perfectly sound, but it is not
considered to be a strong wool. "Strong or deep grown
wool " simply denotes a class of wool as distinguished from
a fine wool.
VIGOR — Denoting that there is a little stronger or a
more lusty growth in the wool. This term is most frequently
used when speaking of the wool of a stud sheep, which is
required to be stouter in its formation, applying alike to fine,
medium, or strong merino ; for instance, taking a fine wool
WOOL. 171
with a diameter of r¥loo of an inch as the lowest measurement,
and, say, for example, TTVu of an inch as the finest limit, that
wool measuring TTrV^ of an inch would be called the more
vigorous of the two.
ROBUSTNESS — Is closely allied to vigor, and is used
when describing a ram's wool possessing above the average
amount of firmness and strength fpr its breed or type. A
fine wool can be robust as well as a strong.
MASCULINITY — R eferring to a wool having great strength,
or very stout and male-like. When pastoralists are selecting
stud sheep, much attention is given by them to the fleece,
and they prefer to see that it possesses such masculinity or
sturdy growth more especially in the male parent. This
masculinity is found mostly on the folds and the edges of the
wrinkles, which will be covered by a growth much stronger
than that found on other parts of the fleece. Some breeders
select those sheep having hair on the wrinkles, folds, and the
britch, claiming that this hairiness denotes true masculinity.
EFFEMINATE — To convey the idea that the wool is
becoming too delicate, soft, or weakly — quite the reverse of
masculinity.
FOLDS. — An over-abundance of skin, folded or doubled
so as to lay or lap together and form one large piece or fold.
These folds are very conspicuous on the front of the highly-
bred stud rams of the present time.
APRON. — Applies to the massive folds on the front of the
classic stud sheep.
WRINKLES are the various small ridges or creases found
on many sheep, and are called wrinkles or small folds.
DEPTH. — Applies to the length of the staple. A wool of
a desirable length will have a good depth of staple.
TAREING. — Signifies that in the course of manufacture a
wool will yield a satisfactory amount of pure, clear, sound
sliver or carding. This term is used mostly amongst top
makers or wool-combers, when they say a wool will tare well,
or give a good return of top or sliver.
172 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
FAULTY WOOLS.
NOILY. — This term is used in reference to combing wools
only, and means that there is an open, fuzzy, wasty growth ;
also any weak, webby, or frothy wool is called Noily.
Wool whose fibres cross and most tick-stained wool are
considered noily, likewise wool giving much noil in the
process of combing. We find a great proportion of noily
wool come from the Western country, and from open plains
of other districts. The sheep having little or no shelter, the
outside of their fleece becomes perished. This as it passes
through the combing machine is combed out, when it is called
Noil.
OVERFINE. — All wools are so called whose curves become
more pointed and run into one another like the meshes of a
net. The fibres of this form possess very little uniformity or
elasticity, and their growth is very thin. The formation of
the staple is always imperfect, and a portion of the wool
fibres grow simply upwards. Yolk does not exist in
sufficient quantity ; consequently such wools are always dry,
and their value is small.
CLEAR. — The staple is called clear when the structure of
a wool is even, true and uniform, and the curves of
the same are distinct and easily recognisable. The form of
each crimp or curve is still normal, and although they are
uniform they are found to be much closer than in the watery
type. The union of the several strands is not so intimate,
and the form of each crimp or curve stands out clearly. The
staple is cylindrical in shape, the growth of the fibres very
close upon the skin, and of equal length and strength. The
staple is small bodied, and the wool is of great value.
WATERY. — It consists of perfectly even staples, of
cylindrical form, and of equal length. The crimpy formation
always appears true, but rather cloudy, and should be regular
and even. The binders of staples here only grow through
and along the surface of the stem, and never further down.
WOOL. 173
The yolk should be light in colour, plentiful, very
liquid, and not deposited in small lumps between the staples.
This form is always of small-bodied types, and is found only
in small-fibred wools.
WEBBY. — As the name indicates, that the staples are light
and cloud-like, reminding one of a cobweb. The fibres are very
delicate and straight, the curves very wide and indistinct.
The wool has lost all character, and is of very little value.
Sheep growing this type of wool should be fattened and sold
to the butcher.
FEATHERY. — Appears light, open, fluffy or webby. and
is also a delicate wool.
FROTHY. — Frothy means foamy, light or unsubstantial.
This style of wool varies much in its formation, and is placed
loosely on the skin. In many examples we find the character
well defined, whilst in others it is plain and almost straight.
The appearance is light and bright, and generally pleasing to
the eye.
VEILED. — Wool is said to be veiled when its curves are
intermixed and scarcely discernible. This happens when a
portion of the fibre of the one group does not unite to form
a staple, but partially joins another. These overlapping
fibres are said to be veiled. The form of the curves is mostly
normal ; the fibres are always of aristocratic character, with
a large-bodied staple.
FLUFFY — Is a wool light, open, flocky, or downy, and
of a misty appearance. Wool of this description indicates a
light, delicate, or effeminate growth. The fibres are small and
characterless.
CLOUDY. — A wool with an overcast appearance ; the
formation is indistinct ; it lacks density, although it may
appear bold. It is a wool wanting in character and quality.
CRAPE. — This is a kind of wool which in its formation
resembles crape. The curves are very fine, close, and cling
together so much that the staple resembles a crape tissue.
174 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AXD WOOL.
This crape formation is a most perfect wool for the manu-
facture of the finest cloths which the merinos are capable of
producing. It contains the excellent qualities of a clothing-
wool in itself, but the outward appearance of the staple has
the peculiarity that these qualities appear veiled by its con-
fused formation.
COTTONY. — It has a loose, full appearance, and is inclined
to be a little cloudy or misty. It is mostly inclined to be
delicate, and has a downy look.
THREAD-LIKE. — This name is given to wools w^hen
the curves are misformed and take a spiral structure. The
strand formation is discontinued, and each fibre grows up
independently. There is a great scarcity of yolk in such
wool.
PLAIN. — Plain is the wool where the curves in the staples
are scarcely discernible. The staple formation has ceased
altogether, and the fleece is only very slightly held together
by binders. The yolk is very insufficient in quantity. This
form is not very often found in the merino ; when it is, the
wool is always glossy in appearance.
STRAIGHT STAPLE. — When it is formed of only a few
isolated binders, and each individual staple appears almost
isolated. A fleece of this kind often divides into separate
staples after being shorn. The yolk in it is often not
sufficient. The form of the curves is crowded, but still the
wool is not highly serrated.
The staple formation has ceased altogether, and the fleece
is only very slightly held together by binders. The yolk is
very insufficient in quantity. This form is not very often
found in the merino ; when it is, the wool is always glossy in
appearance.
BADLY BRED. — The fibres are straight, irregular, and
generally deficient in quality, and of no particular type.
WOOL. 175
CURLY. — Of all wools this is the most imperfect, and
should not be found a in flock. It consists of most of the im-
perfections to be found in wool, in fact, it may be said that the
wool has changed almost to hair. The curves take all forms,
the character is gone, the staples are irregular in length, and
have a thin open growth.
STRINGY. — As the name implies, a thin, small-bodied
stapled wool. This defect relates more to the growth than the
formation of the fibre, the staples lying loosely and showing
much of the skin, when they have a stringy appearance.
These staples are affected by being exposed to the climate
through being so open that they become dry, and have a
twisted look. They are never found in a dense wool.
LOCKY. — Indicates that the growth is thin and little, also
the staples have a thin, stringy formation, with a wasty tip ex-
tending well down the staple, thus it is seen, the wool is of a
thin, spare growth. It appears as if the staples had been wet,
then dried, giving it a stringy appearance.
OAKUM-LIKP:. — Such is the term used when the curve's
are flat, the structure lacks uniformity, and the fibres form a
confused mass.
WIRY. — Is a most objectionable type, and a sheep pro-
ducing it should be got rid of by fattening for the butcher.
The fibres are thick, straight, and hard, the crimpy structure
is lost, and each fibre grows up independently without any
form of staple.
HARSH. — As the name implies, a wool hard to feel, or
-touch. This is found in some breeds of our merino sheep,
but often it is caused by the absence of yolk, or a dry, dusty
season.
BRITTLE. — Is a wool that will break off short without
stretching. This is a very great fault found in the w^ools of
some countries, such as Egyptian, East and West Indies.
In the Australasian colonies it is a very rare occurrence to find
a brittle wool in its true meaning. The climate above all
176 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
others is in direct opposition to anything brittle in wool. We
have wool of a hard nature, but rarely brittle when compared
with that from the countries mentioned.
KEMPS. — Are hard, brittle, opaque, white hairs,
sometimes brown and black, found in sheep, indicating
a want of purity of blood. These are most objectionable
fibres, being celless, which accounts for the hard and brittle
nature, and should not be found on a merino sheep, but
when present are on the head mostly, and sometimes on the
britch, and have a very damaging effect. To the manufacturers
kempsare detestable, as their nature prevents them from being
successfully used, as in the course of manipulation they break
off short, and resist dyes. When wool contains kemps it
is used for low undyed goods, as blankets, rugs, saddle-
cloths, &c.
GARE. — Is a straight fibre, inclined to be glossy, which
is the only difference between it and kemp. When found in
a fleece gare can be easily detected, as it stands out promi-
nently, and will not mix with the wool. It is found mostly on
the legs of the sheep.
DOG HAIR. — Applies to bristly or maney hairs found on
the wrinkles and thighs of some merino sheep. In some
countries dog hair is cultivated in the stud sheep, and is
claimed to be a sign of masculinity.
HASLOCK. — A name given to a small lock of wool found
on the pit of the throat of a sheep, and is claimed to be the
coarsest wool to be found on a merino sheep. All sheep have
this small lock of Haslock, which is sometimes called Breast-
knot, and can be covered by the tip of a finger. It may be
said that this lock resembles the beard of a turkey, which is
quite distinct from the feathers, being a strong hair, and very
distinct when the bird has been plucked. On a fleece it is
unusually glossy, very coarse, and best seen from the flesh
side. Some very low, hairy, crossbred lambs' wool is recog-
nised, and is sold as Haslock, simply on account of its
roughness.
WOOL. 177
CAST. — Relates to anything" rough or badly bred found in
a clip of wool.
SHANKINGS. — The name given to the trimmings of the
legs of the sheep. These are very short and bitty, composed
generally of a low wool, hair, kemps, and gare. Shankings
are made into the lowest classes of woollen goods, such as
low carpets and rugs.
DAGS. — Matted, dirty locks, caused by the droppings of
the sheep adhering or clinging to the staples. This is the
result when a sheep has been suddenly changed on to fresh,
green pastures.
MOITS. — Refers to all vegetable matter in the wool, viz.,
straw, hay, leaves, twigs, thorns, burrs, seeds, &c. Accord-
ing to the seasons, there are found more or less moits in the
wool. In a good season, when feed is bountiful, there will be
most moits ; if a bad season, then the fewer. Even in a fair
season there will be found more moits about the
head and neck than in any other parts. Amongst hoggets
there is a great propensity to push their heads amongst the
lower branches of the scrub and fallen timber, so as to get at
any green shoots of herbage or grass, and in doing so a great
quantity of moits get into the wool. This is one reason why
it is most necessary to take out the necks when skirting a fleece.
GRITTY. — Denotes that the wool has a hard, unnatural
feel, caused by the presence of grit and sand. Grit and sand
have a very detrimental effect upon wool, as they dry up the
yolk, thus depriving it of its proper nourishment, making it
hard and unkind. Gritty wools are mostly found in Mulga
and Gydia countries, where the land is loose and gritty.
EARTHY. — When a wool contains much dust, from a
rich soil, black or chocolate, as found in rich agricultural
lands, the wool is called earthy.
SEEDY. — Applies to a wool having grass seed in it. Grass
seed is one of the worst kinds of moits found in wool, being
most difficult to remove, as the stems are tough and lay
parallel with the fibre.
178 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
BURRY. — Any wool having burrs in it is called burry.
There are different kinds of burr, the largest being the
Bathurst, which is not difficult to remove, the worst being
trefoil and clover, the heads of which have spikes or horns, to
which the wool clings, always causing a loss during the
process of extraction.
MUSHY. — Means open, perished, wasty, or noily. The
exterior of the fleece, especially out on the Western exposed
plains, is seriously affected by sun and dust, causing the tips
of the staple to become deadened or perished. Frequently
the ends of the single fibre split and spread, making it larger
or out of proportion to the staple.
FUZZY. — The growth of the wool is open and spongy,
and, when grasped, closes readily, although the wool may
appear bold or bulky.
WASTY. — Applies to both greasy and scoured wool. A
tender or a fluffy wool will make more waste in the process of
manufacturing, when the bulk will gradually shrink or
waste away. Also, a heavy, yolky, sandy wool will waste
or shrink much in the course of scouring. A scoured wool,
mixed, entangled, or ropy, will waste much more than a
free, open, scoured wool.
HUNGRY WOOL. — When a wool is inclined to be too
fine, otherwise too effeminate or delicate, and the staples are
thin or shelly-looking, it is called " hungry wool." A dry
season is generally the cause; the want of proper nourishment
has caused an insufficiency of succour in the shape of yolk,
therefore the wool has a starved appearance. Such wools
have a rather inviting appearance, are of a good colour,
light-conditioned, and handle soft and kind.
SHRINKAGE. — This term is used to indicate that the
the wool will lose in weight in the different processes of
manipulation. A wool will shrink more or less in scouring ;
also, a tender or brittle, hard wool will shrink in the
machines
WOOL. 179
YIELD. — Means the actual weight of clean wool after being
scoured, also the amount of top yielded whilst passing
through a combing machine. It also refers to a waste, that
is, the quantity of noil the wool will give or yield in the
process of combing.
OVERGROWN. — As the name infers, of an unnatural
growth. The natural growth of wool is 12 months, and when
it is allowed to remain on for a longer period, there are signs
of over-growing, with a gradual inclining to faultiness. How
many months' growth will determine whether a wool is over-
grown is uncertain, as the fine and medium classes, on account
of their shorter length, do not show overgrowth as readily as
the longer or deep-grown grades. The wool is invariably a
deeper color, whilst towards the end of the staple it appears
wasty well down, caused by the extra length falling in open
locks, which are damaged by heat and dust. The staple ends
are always more or less entangled and wasty, and generally
much larger in proportion to the bulk of the staple. (A sheep
has been known to carry its fleece for four years without
showing the least sign of a break or thinness, the staple
on the side measuring 24 inches and the belly 19 inches
in length.) An overgrown merino wool loses its com-
mercial value, being too long for its fineness, and being
generally wasty. In hoggets, we often see part of the
flock carrying fleece up to 18 months' growth, the remainder
with a more natural growth. The 18 months' growth
for some time has been deteriorating in value, and in
a bad season the sheep runs the risk of losing its fleece
altogether. This is one reason why all owners on extensive
breeding stations should shear their lambs, so that in the
following year all the hoggets would have a wool of a uniform
length, therefore a more desirable and suitable wool to present
to the buyers.
BULKY. — Relates to wool, long or short, being over the
average in its bulk or growth for its class.
180 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
LOFTY. — A wool of a full, bold appearance, applicable
to all classes of wool ; even noils, short wool and locks, when
of a larger-bodied growth than the average, are called "lofty."
TIPPY. — A wool having too much or an over-abundance
of tip.
FRIES. — Are second cuts caused by indifferent shearing.
In the course of shearing, it frequently occurs that the shearer
does not take off the fleece regularly, cutting sometimes
deeper than at other times, causing ridges on the sheep when
shorn. The shearer will then clip these ridges a second time,
and the pieces clipped off naturally find their way to the
floor amongst the dirtiest of the wool — the locks and
trimmings.
FRIBBY. — A fleece is said to be fribby when a great
number of second cuts or fribs fall out when it is shaken or
in the process of rolling. When these second cuts are
numerous they cause a great irregularity in the length of the
staples. Some will be a serviceable combing ; the next
might be only a clothing length.
COTTY. — Is a matted, entangled or felted wool. This
objectionable fault usually renders the fleece perfectly useless
for manufacturing purposes. Really the only use they can
be put to is to make them into mats, w^hen they look well in
their proper place — on the floor. Sickness is one of the main
causes of a wool cotting, when the wool is deprived of its
proper succour, yolk having ceased to nourish the wool.
Under these conditions the fibres become dry, and instead of
slipping over each other, as when yolk is present, they
entangle or cling together, and in time form a thick,
entangled, board-like woolly mass. It often occurs that
cotting is so intense that it makes the fleece so thick and
tough that it is impossible to tear it to pieces even with the
aid of hand hooks. Some lands of mineral formation, as
lime or iron, will cause the sheep depasturing on such lands
to have their fleeces more or less cotty. In the Highlands of
WOOL. 181
Scotland and the North of England all the wool is more or
less cotted, especially if the sheep have not been greased or
buttered.
FAST. — A term used to indicate a slightly cotty fleece or
wool w^hen in the early stages of cotting. The fastness
appears on the flesh side, which opens out like unrolling a
blanket, and when handled the fast or slight cottiness can be
very easily opened or spread out. Such wools, especially in
combings, yield a great amount of noil, all the "fast" in the
combing process going to noil.
MONGREL WOOL. — The wool of a mongrel sheep ; also
applies to the wool of any breed that has lost its type. Some
wools have come under my notice shorn off pure bred
merinos, which were without the least trace of the merino
character, and were called by experts cross-bred. To be
correct, the wool could not possibly be cross-bred, being off
pure bred sheep, so cross-bred was substituted for a worse
name, viz., Mongrel wool.
SHIVEY. — Relates exclusively to the formation of the
staple, indicating that it is thin and shell-like. Such
formation is frequently found in the wool of aged sheep, when
the staple appears a normal size or width, but, upon close
inspection, is found to be very thin, flat, scaly or shell-like.
CRUTCHINGS. — In these colonies crutchings is the name
given to those trimmings clipped off the hind part of the
sheep. Amongst the long wools both crossbreds and deep-
grown merino, it is often found necessary to free the hind
quarters of wool.
In Britain, where most of the sheep are washed in a dam
or running stream, the shepherd uses what is called a crutch,
or long-hooked rod, so as to immerse the sheep as they pass
through the water. When this operation is performed, the
sheep are full-woolled, therefore, there is much loose wool
left behind through crowding together. This is afterwards
gathered and dried, and sold to the wool-stapler or
manufacturer as crutchings.
182 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AXD WOOL.
UNSOUNDNESS.
Wool is a curious and sensitive fibre, and there is not
another so susceptible to injury. The structure and general
wool properties will be as near perfection as can be one year,
whilst the succeeding" year the wool, in general, may be all
imperfections, making it of incomparably less value for all
purposes. There are many causes of unsoundness in its
varieties, such as sudden or a long, lingering sickness, a
sudden change from a poor to a good pasture, and changing
from a hot to a cold climate.
TENDERNESS. — Is applied to a wool so weak as to break
in any part of the staple, and not in one particular part. The
wool may appear to be of a healthy, sound growth, but
instantly, when tension is applied, it severs easily, just the
same as down or cotton would do. Tenderness is caused by
a long, lingering sickness, when the wool does not receive its
proper nourishment in the shape of yolk. A continuous
droughty season impoverishes the wool greatly, through the
want of water, causing it to become tender. A want of feed
will also have the same effect. Tenderness is frequently
caused when there is much seed in the wool, the result
of the action of the yolk upon the seeds which rots
them, they in turn rotting the wool.
BREAK IN WOOL. — This is a fault quite distinct from
tenderness, and signifies that the wool will break in a certain
part of the staple. Above and below this break the staple
has perfectly sound growths, so that it will be easily seen
where lies the difference between a tender wool and a break
in wool. This break is very distinct in many instances, and
when holding up the staple by the tip the end or bottom part
will fall off. In most cases this thin part or break is
readily observed, a thin line running across the staple.
This defect is the result of a sudden sickness, or a change
from a bare to a green, luxuriant pasture. During severe
illness the blood of the sheep becomes impoverished and
WOOL. 183
weak, and does not throw off those elements from which wool
is formed, therefore causing a stoppage of growth. This
thin growth appears throughout the whole of the fleece, and
is so regular that one can tell at what time of the year the
sickness took place. When a sheep has been running in a
bare paddock where the feed is scarce, the wool is naturally
wanting in vigor. If these sheep are taken out and put on
rich, abundant young feed, in a few days a stronger and
more healthy wool appears, leaving a decided mark showing
where the healthy growth commenced. This mark is where
the break occurs, and it is often so thin that part of the wool
will drop off.
ATROPHY.
FIBRE OF DISEASED WOOL.
ATROPHY.
ATROPHY. — When a wool fibre varies in diameter
it is called untrue, which is caused by " atrophy," or
wasting away of certain parts. This is the result of poor
feeding or sickness. In some instances we find a sudden
contraction of the fibres at certain points, which is
frequently sufficient to give the edge of the fibre a notched
appearance, while in other cases we find a more gradual
contraction.
184
FIBRE OF
DISEASED WOOI,.
HYPERTROPHY.
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
HYPERTROPHY. — This formation is caused
by a defect termed "Hypertrophy," or morbid
enlargement. With reference to hypertrophy
none of the sharp or pronounced variations
are found ; the fibre begins to enlarge
at certain points, and this enlargement may
continue throughout the length of the fibre,
until obtaining a diameter of even twice
the dimensions of other parts. Whenever
these abnormal forms occur, the size of the
epidermal scales of the outer layer as well as
the diameter of the fibre are affected, the
internal structure is, in fact, affected, which
greatly reduces the strength of such fibres.
Atrophy and hypertrophy are really diseases
in the wool only, which cause malformations
as described.
CONDITION. — Is used to indicate the state of the wool.
It may be in good or normal condition, and it may be in
bad condition.
RICH. — Relates to wool with free, healthy yolk, which
imparts softness, and it is of a rich brown appearance.
SAPPY. — Buyers say a wool is sappy when it handles fatty,
and wish to imply that the wool is inclined to be on the heavy
side, through the presence of yolk.
FATTY. — When a wool handles sticky, it is said to be fatty.
PASTY. — Used to imply that the yolk is of a thick, heavy
stiff nature, or that a wool carries an overabundance of sticky
yolk.
SUETY. — Denotes that the yolk is in an unusually heavy,
lumpy condition. In such wools generally a brown yolk adheres
to the fibres in small lumps or particles, causing a difficulty as
well as a great loss of weight in scouring.
WOOL. 185
COLOUR.
COLOUR is one of the most valuable and important
properties in connection with wool for manufacturing" pur-
poses, there being a great many varieties of colour. The
different degrees of colour in the various breeds of sheep are
numerous, generally caused by climatic conditions adding to
or diminishing the capabilities of the wool for taking the many
shades and colours to which wool is dyed according to require-
ments. It must be mentioned that the greatest proportion of
wool is dyed either before or after it is manufactured into yarns
or fabrics, so that colour is a great consideration, and according
to its aptitude to take dyes the value of the raw material is
increased or diminished. Colours must be divided as follow,
viz. : — Lustre, First Demi-Lustre, Second Demi-Lustre,.
Brightness, White or Chalky, Black or Brown, Grey, Brown
Grey, and Variegated.
LUSTRE. — Implies brilliant, silvery, metallic, glossy
appearance, and is found in the strongest breeds of sheep,
such as the Lincoln and Leicester only, and to this class may
be added the " Mohair" of "Angora Goat" and Alpaca
fleeces, which are placed amongst the lustres by the
manufacturers. The reflective power of the growth or covering
of these breeds exceeds that of any other wool producers.
This is caused by the formation of the scales or serrations,
which, when dyed, will take the most delicate shades, giving
a more brilliant or silvery appearance than any other wool.
Hence the name of Lustre.
FIRST DEMI-LUSTRE. — Demi means half; therefore, the
colour is not pure lustre, and will not take the same delicate
dye or shades, still having a glossy appearance, but not to
the extent of the pure lustre.
SECOND DEMI-LUSTRE. — There is a less shiny or metallic
appearance in this type of wool than in the first demi, and
it can take only a deeper or darker dye than wools of the
former class.
186 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AXD WOOL.
BRIGHTNESS. — Signifies a softer or kinder shade of
lustre. This term applies mostly to our merino, although
the term is often applied to the lustre families. This is a
mistake, as no merino, however bright it appears, will ever
have so glossy, silvery or brilliant a colour as either the
Lincoln or Leicester wool when scoured. The very formation
of the scales of the finer wools will not allow of this. Being
thin or more delicate than the stronger wools, these, therefore,
have not the same reflective power. There are many degrees
of brightness in the merino, but never that shiny appearance
to be called lustre. I have scoured great quantities of these
different breeds of wool, and when the brightest merino is
put alongside the Lincoln or Leicester wool the difference is
very pronounced.
CHALKY OR WHITE. — Implies that the wool is rather
dull or has the appearance of flour, chalk, or a want of
brightness ; they are generally dry and good yielding types.
These wools may be found amongst the flocks out on our
Western country, from about Nyngan right through to the
Queensland border. The Downs families are also of
this class.
BLACK. — The wool coming under this term has the
darkest colour in the grease, and can only be so-called in that
state. When it is washed the black is turned into a grey,
commonly called self-grey. This class of wool is most
valuable when there is a total absence of white fibres.
GREY WOOL. — Means that the black wool is intermixed
with white fibres. Often in the ordinary wool there is found
intermixed black fibres, when the term grey wool is also used.
BROWN. — Is the name given to wool of a dusky color,
inclining to dark red. When scoured this class is also called
"self-grey,'' but is of a brighter shade than found in black
scoured wool.
BROWN GREY. — When the brown wool contains white
fibres it is called brown grey.
WOOL. 187
VARIEGATED. — Applies to wool of various colours found
in a fleece. Sometimes a fleece at one period of its growth
will be black, underneath a line of white followed by a streak
of grey, then again by a brown. Each of these colours is
grown at the same time, giving the wool a streaky appearance,
as if it had been dyed first black, then brown, then a mixture
of grey, often followed by the natural, bright wool. These
various growths give a variegated appearance.
DEFECTIVE COLORS.
WATER-STAINED. — Such wools have a white and lifeless
appearance, caused through the sheep having passed through
a very wet season. The sheep, through the frequent rains,
and often through having to go into shallow dams to get a
drink, get their wool saturated with water, and when it is dried
leaves it white, the brightness having been destroyed, making
it a faulty leaden color, resembling a light, rainy cloud.
Water-stained wool, however well scoured, will never regain
its brightness.
TICK STAINED. — Applies to a wool of a heavy, leaden ap-
pearance, mostly found in this wool when scoured. The cause
of this defective colour is through the neglect of the owner in
not dipping his sheep ; therefore it is an expensive piece of
mismanagement. In the Eastern and greater part of the
Central districts of this colony, also the southern colonies, it
is most necessary to dip the sheep, so as to kill all the insects
and cleanse the skin, thereby assisting and encouraging the
growth of wool and imparting both strength, softness, and
brightness. If the sheep are allowed to go undipped, the ticks
and other pests increase quickly, as they live on the yolk of
the wool, and rob it of its proper nourishment, cause the colour
to fadeand become a sickly green. Ticks likewise stain the wool,
and leave it with a nauseous smell and a hungry, sour look.
The sheep are also in a perpetual state of irritation through
188 AUSTRALIAN' SHEEP AND WOOL.
the presence of ticks, rubbing against anything with which
they come in contact, making the exterior of the wool open,
taggy, and wasty, and thus greatly injuring the fleece. Con-
sidering that sheep can be most effectually dipped at a cost of
a farthing to a halfpenny per head, which means a difference
of fully 2d. per lb., or about 305. per bale in favour of dipped
wool, it is surprising that this most important part of sheep-
husbandry is not universal. Any improvement imparted to
wool by means of artificial treatment, which has proved a
success by enhancing its value, should be taken advantage of.
YOLK-STAINED OR DISCOLOURED. — Denotes that the
natural colour of the wool has changed through the decompo-
sition of yolk. Although the cultivation of yolk is most
necessary in the production of a high-class wool, it often occurs
that the colour of the wool suffers through its agency. Yolk,
like wool, is subject to climatic effects, when it often becomes
diseased, sickens, and dies.
Under any of these circumstances the wool also is
injured, the sick yolk gradually loses its lubricating power,
becomes stiff, collecting in a body on the fibre, when the
wool becomes discoloured, and also suffers in quality.
According to the state of the decomposition of the yolk, so
the colour is permanently affected. In the early stages of
disease there is a light yellow colour, and as the disease
advances the colour becomes darker or brown. At times the
dead yolk is immovably attached in lumps to the fibre,
appearing like small pieces of resin. In a rainy season
sheep producing most yolk are in greater danger of their
fleece becoming discoloured than those with a lighter and
freer yolk. The rain, if it is not shaken off, or if it does not
run off, settles in the fleece, and at once commences to stiffen
the yolk, when it hinders the supply and forms a crust,
which, in the course of time, becomes tainted in colour,
varying from a light pink to brown, and often greenish
shades. Under these circumstances the wool cannot be
scoured bright, or even clean, therefore it goes on to the
WOOL. 189
market in a damaged state. A dusty season will have a
similar effect, causing a stoppage or drying up of the yolk,
when the colour suffers.
DINGY. — Denotes that there is a general deficiency of
colour, caused by becoming faded or darkened by soil or tick
stain. A dingy wool has a heavy, leaden, cloudy appearance,
and is the same colour all through the entire fleece, which
may be said to be sullied, however carefully the cleansing
by scouring has been done. It may be perfectly clean, but
never bright or white.
STAINED. — When a WTOO! is black or brown, caused by
urine, it is called stained. This is a defect totally impossible
to prevent, and however carefully the wool is scoured, it has
always a burnt appearance. Although the wool is stained by
urine, it is one of the softest and kindest wools to handle
when clean ; the urine itself, being a scouring agent, imparts
that softness and kindness that might be wanting in other
parts of the fleece. The wool is used in making of fabrics
of the darkest colours.
SOUR WOOL. — This term is used when the colour is not
particularly good or bright, but of a greenish tinge, mostly
found in undipped wool grown in the Eastern and hilly
districts in the Central divisions. This is a wool much
avoided by those buyers wanting a good combing or clothing,
although it may have fineness with length, or it may be
short and fine.
HYGIENE.
NATURE OF WOOL. — Of all the fibres, either animal or
vegetable, there is not one to be compared with wool for
absorbing moisture. This most valuable absorbent property
of wool may be said to be due to the constitution being a
190 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AXD WOOL.
glutinous matter, together with the peculiarity of its construc-
tion, rendering it capable of being completely dissolved under
extreme treatment with chemicals. Not so with most animal
and all vegetable fibres, which, instead of absorbing moisture
to any extent, will not to any great degree attract moisture
until actually immersed.; therefore, the value of wool for
making sanitary clothes and hosiery goods, which are
acknowledged by the faculty to be the healthiest fabrics to
wear next to the skin in all climates. Take, for instance,
underclothing made of wool, and worn even in the hottest
climates ; the wearer will find that any perspiration is more
readily absorbed and retained than by fabrics made out of other
fibres. Cotton, silk, &c., instead of absorbing the heat and
moisture, will throw both back on the body to a great
extent, tending to fill up the pores of the skin, thus
producing an unhealthy condition. These fibres cannot be
destroyed by dissolving like wool, but can only be consumed
and reduced to ashes by heat. During the wintry seasons
woollen tissues, whilst attracting and retaining the heat of
the body by the softness, nature and texture, imparts a
comfortable, warm feeling, especially when in contact with
the skin. Hard vegetable fibres made into clothing reject
or throw the heat back, and when it comes in contact with the
skin, imparts an unnatural feeling.
HOSIERY WOOL.
This is a class of wool mostly of the medium growth,
both in length and quality, and is used in a branch of manu-
facture distinct from the clothing, or cloths made from combing
wools. Hosiery wool may be called an intermediate between
clothing and combing wools, that is, it is better adapted
for making light hosiery and woollen yarns. Such wools are
preferable to those having a medium length, a doubtful
combing length, and a little too long for a stylish clothing
WOOL. 191
wool. These wools should be of this intermediate length,
and of an open, fluffy, or spongy growth, wanting in body
and compactness, at the same time one of the plain or straight-
fibred type. As hosiery goods are of a light, open, fleecy
character, it necessarily follows that any wool of a felting
nature is not in the least suitable for hosiery purposes.
Hosiery yarns require to be open, and those wools carry-
ing a spongy growth, with mushy, noily or wasty tips similar
to those grown out West on the exposed plains, are well-
adapted to this branch of manufacture. The wools are simply
carded, and not combed, being very lightly twisted to give a
light, cloudy appearance.
A WARP WOOL. — Must be a wool in a clear, healthy,
state ; full, bold, compact, close, and free in its growth, par-
ticularly sound, with body and substance, whether it be
a combing or a clothing wool. Warp is a name given
by manufacturers of various kinds of textile fabrics, who
require a better bodied wool for a warp yarn or thread, than
is needed for any other kind of yarn. A warp is the
foundation of a piece of cloth, and consists of a number of
threads placed lengthwise in the loom for weaving, generally
from fifty to sixty yards long. Each thread in the loom
is detached, or separated by flat pieces of wire, working
exactly as if the thread was placed between the teeth
of an ordinary hair-comb. In the loom there is considerable
strain upon the warp, as it is necessary to keep it straight
and tight ; also, when the loom is in motion, there is con-
siderable friction caused by the continual passing of the shuttle
from one side of the loom to the other. Every time the shuttle
is thrown across the loom these teeth, as it were, are brought
smartly against the weft yarn which it leaves behind, jamming
it close, thus causing a great amount of strain upon the
warp, which must of necessity be very sound to stand the
tension.
192 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
WEFT WOOL. — A wool made into a yarn which is thrown
across alternately from one side of the loom to the other by
the shuttle, leaving a thread behind every time through the
warp, thus leaving a woven fabric. As there is no tension
when the shuttle is carrying and leaving the weft behind every
time it crosses the loom, the yarn is usually much lighter, and
Is not spun so hard or tight as the warp yarn. Under these
conditions the wool required need not have the same fulness
of body, compactness or draught as a warp wool. Supposing,
for instance there are 50,000 fleeces of the same length, quality,
soundness, and colour ; when classing, those having a full, bold,
compact staple, would be selected as the warp wool ; whilst all
other fleeces thinner or not so massive, in other words wanting
a little in body, would be selected for the weft yarn. Although
the two wools are exactly of the same quality, colour, and
length, a spinner would give fully a penny per pound more
for the warp than for the weft wool. Making warp and weft
sorts is left to the wool-sorter, and not to the wool-classer,
being one of the advanced branches in the wool trade.
LENGTH OR DEPTH.
The sheep is an animal which does not change its
covering every year. Wool grows without hindrance, unless
checked by disease or starvation, when it loses its growth.
The successive yearly growths of wool are, however, not
proportionate, if left unshorn. Wool, which has been left
growing several years uninterruptedly, shows a yearly decrease
in the increase of length. If the growth of the wool measures
3 inches in the first year, in the second it will add about 2
inches, in the third it will add ij inches ; so that in a staple of
eight years successive growth, the last two years will not
add a |-inch in length. In measuring the length of wool,
WOOL. 193
two separate conditions have to be taken into consideration,
the natural or apparent, and the true length. It is often
contended that the natural length, de^th or height of the wool
is that which a single fibre measures in its natural form,
without being stretched. This is not correct, because a single
wool fibre cannot be measured without being stretched. The
expression i4 natural length, depth, or height," can, therefore,
only be used with reference to the staple or strand. The true
length of the wool fibre is found by stretching it until it forms
a straight line. By length we understand the measurement
which the wool attains from one shearing to another, or in
one year's growth, which is the natural growth of wool.
HOW TO TEST THE STRENGTH OF WOOL.
A tradesman is generally judged by the manner in which
he handles the material he is working, also the way he uses
the tools required in that particular profession. Many a man
has been condemned by the way he has commenced to cut
open a bale of wool, or has taken out the wool frorrf the bale.
There are no tools required when handling unpressed wool ;
yet the actions of anyone operating certainly indicate whether
he is used to the work, or whether he is a stranger to it, just
the same as a carpenter or blacksmith can be judged by the
way he uses the chisel, hammer, or saw.
Every buyer, when sampling wool, in the first place
must ascertain the length of wool under offer. If he is a
buyer of combing wool he requires some length or depth of
staple ; if clothing wool, he selects the short stapled. The
same applies to the valuator, wool-sorter, and classer, who
must satisfy himself in the first place as to the natural length
of the wool he is handling, also test it as to its soundness,
as well as examine it as to its quality. To ascertain the
length of any kind of wool in its natural state, take hold of the
tip of the staple with the thumb and first finger of the right
hand, drawing it the way it grows between the thumb and
194 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
finger, sometimes fingers, of the left hand, by which it is
held lightly, but not too loosely, and when the bottom of the
staple is felt, stop, taking- great care not to detach it from the
main piece or fleece. To draw a staple away or free it from
the fleece, pulling and tugging at it, and when well mutilated
throwing it on the floor, is a sure indication of an indifferent
and improper early training. In fact, it may be questioned
whether one so acting ever served any time in learning the
business. Probably not. Having drawn the staple sufficiently
to ascertain the length, keep hold of the bottom with
the thumb and finger of the left hand, thus retaining the two
ends, pull or stretch gently so as to satisfy yourself as to its
strength and length. Whilst it is stretched bring the
second or third finger of the right hand, whichever comes
most convenient and natural, smartly across the middle of the
staple, and if it does not give way or break, but rings, it is
said to be sound, a most important quality. Having now got
the length, and satisfied yourself as to the soundness of the
wool, the next move is to find out the quality. This is done
by still retaining hold of the tip of the staple as before, and
with the left hand bringing in the base to the thick part of and
parallel with the thumb of the right hand. With the middle
finger of the right hand hold the staple from the base very
lightly, so as to allow the finger and thumb to spread or open
out the staple, thus exposing the wool, so that it can be
properly examined as to its quality and texture. There are
three movements necessary when examining wool. First,
drawing out the staple to get the length ; second, applying
tension to learn the strength or soundness ; third, opening
out the staple to ascertain the quality. Any competent wool
expert will test wool in this manner, which requires a little
practice when in the elementary stages of learning the wool
business. Handling wool in this manner is most business-
like, besides being a certain way to find out any faults, and
at the same time the best way to show the best qualities of
the wool.
WOOL.
BINDERS AND THE AGE OF SHEEP.
Many gentlemen connected with wool growing and
buying will consider that it is a bold assertion to make that
the age of a sheep can be approximately told by its wool.
After many careful examinations of the wool of sheep of
different ages, it is confidently asserted that there are peculiar
indications in the way by which the staples are held together
to enable one to say what were the ages of those sheep. The
first comparison was made by thoroughly examining a
hogget fleece and that of an old ewe. ' The former is known
principally by its pointed curly tip, and by the manner the
binders are attached to the staple. In a hogget staple the
binders (those fibres which connect the staples so as to form
a fleece) are attached to the very tip, the same as the ribbons
to the may-pole, which are easily detected as the staple is
being drawn out, giving an irregular appearance to the whole
length. Or it may be said that the binders are connected to
the staple throughout its length. Take, now, the other
extreme — the wool of an old sheep. The staple when
drawn will come out almost in a bunch, or independently, and
if there are any binders they will be few and very loosely
connected to the very base of it. Noticing this marked
difference between the old and young wool, other fleeces off
sheep of different ages were also examined, resulting in the
conviction that the age of a sheep could be approximately
told by the position of the binders on the staple. Take the
fleece of a two-tooth, say up to 20 months old, and compare
it with the fleece of a hogget of the natural 12 months'
growth, and upon drawing the staple it will be seen that the
binders of the two-tooth's or 20 months'-old wool will not be
attached to the top or tip as in that of the hogget, but a little
further down. The binders in a four-tooth sheep will be
connected a little further down the staple than in the two-
tooth. In a six-tooth's wool the binders are lower down than
in the four-tooth's staple. The eight-tooth sheep's binders
show out very near to the base of the staple, and as age
creeps on the binders are almost absent.
196 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF WOOL IN THE
~ SAME SHEEP.
Why do different parts of the sheep produce different
qualities of wool ? This is a question rarely asked, although
in the profession it is universally acknowledged that such is
the fact. No single sheep, however well bred, will grow a
wool of the same quality throughout, neither are there two
fleeces exactly alike in the 80,000,000 sheep of Australia.
The front part of the sheep always produces the finest wool.
Why? To answer this question the whole of the physical
structure of the sheep must be considered. In the front part
are situated all the vital organs, or the machinery of the
sheep. Within the breast, shoulders and brisket this
machinery is continually at work throwing off moisture, heat
and perspiration, imparting a more succulent and juicy
flavour to the meat, far in excess of that of any
other part of the sheep. This moisture keeps the
bones light, soft and porous, they being naturally
of a fine character throughout the whole of the front
half of the sheep. Taking next the flesh surrounding this
light, bony formation : upon examination it will be found to be
very fine in grain, much more so than any other part of the
body. Now the skin encircling the front half of the sheep is
the next to inspect, when it will be found that it is thin, fine,
and elastic, yet strong, therefore in keeping with other
characteristics. Under these circumstances it is only
reasonable to claim that according to the laws of nature, the
covering or wool grown on this part must also be the
finest to be found on a sheep. Further down towards the
hind part of the sheep we find the bones, flesh, skin or
pelt gradually, but certainly, getting coarser. Take a leg of
mutton and compare it with a shoulder ; there is a marked
difference ; the flesh of the former is much coarser in the
grain than the latter, also the same difference will be found
WOOL. 197
in bones. Again look at the difference in the texture in the
pelt ; that from the britch or leg will be found to be coarse,
thick, spongy, and not by any means strong, whilst that from
the shoulder will be fine, pliable, sound, and will stand
tension.
Many men connected with the wool trade, more especially
amongst fellmongers, claim that the finest wool is found on
the back. This statement cannot be accepted as correct.
The back wool above all other is the most exposed
part of the sheep, and, if there is any weakness in the wool,
the back is the first place looked to for it. The flesh and pelt
are a little coarser than on the shoulder ; the wool does not
receive the same amount of succour or nourishment in the
shape of yolk, whilst the heat of the sun, together with the
dust, keeps the wool dry by absorbing or drying the yolk,
making it hard and coarse. Therefore, instead of placing the
back wool first, it should go into the fourth and sometimes
fifth place.
HINTS TO SHEARING SHED MANAGERS.
There are many circumstances in connection with
shearing time requiring more thoughtful ness than is mostly
shown by those in charge of a shearing shed. It is acknow-
ledged on every station throughout the whole of these
colonies that to get good table hands to do the skirting and
rolling is almost an impossibility. Yet, how many times will
even those who are loudest in complaints of the inability to
get careful table hands (who have caused the classer
a lot of time and trouble to fit them), take some away
from the tables to give a hand in the drafting yards, or even
to assist in loading the wool or to do any other rouseabout
work. Any manager stands in his own and employer's light
by taking any table hand away when once he is broken in to
the work. Most managers and owners draw the number of
hands too fine, and look to the wool table hands for assistance,
and by so doing disorganise the most important part of
198 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
shearing, that is, the getting up of the clip. Any neglect in
this branch usually means a serious monetary loss in the
value of the wool, as the occasional insufficiency of hands
causes the get up to be irregular, and so the whole suffers.
What all owners and managers should do, is to give the classer
his proper number of hands and let him be responsible for
their work, having full control over them, and he should have
a proper understanding that not one is to be taken away for
any other kind of work. The table hands belong to the
classer and to one else, and taking them away for other work
makes them careless on their return to the wool table.
BAD SHEARING.
Bad shearing is one of the abominations of the shearing-
sheds, causing nothing but trouble at every stage — in fact, it
unhinges the whole work. A pastoralist grows wool as a
business, and he should insist upon having his fleeces taken
off both closely and evenly. In a shed where the manager is
a little lax, the shearers naturally get into a go-as-you-please
fashion, cutting and slashing the fleece, one cut being
well down, the next cutting the staple in half, thereby doing
great damage to the wool. Thus the fleece contains long
and short staples, the shearing operation having destroyed
some parts of the fleece, whilst in other parts there is the full
natural length, sufficient to make it a combing. This kind
of work places the wool-classer in a very unfortunate position,
as he is expected to have a sort equal in length, quality, color,
and condition. How can he keep his sorts equal in length
under these conditions? The wool-selling brokers are especi-
ally loud in their complaints when they find a fleece or fleeces
of different lengths, frequently questioning the ability of the
wool-classer. But the mischief does not rest at this stage.
The manufacturer soon finds out to his cost that such uneven
fleeces, caused by indifferent shearing, waste or noil heavily.
This happy-go-lucky shearing is not confined to the hand-
WOOL. 199
shearer, for the machine-shearers have much to account for,
more especially the contract machine-shearer. It would be of
great benefit to the pastoralists if they would insist upon the
contractor shearing closer, thereby getting more wool, and see
that the fleece is not so much torn to pieces, and that there
are less fribs made than at present.
BRANDING SHEEP.
This may be called a troublesome question, and as a
problem has it been solved? Certainly, it looks simple to
cause so much trouble, but it is the root of many serious com-
plaints from wool buyers and users. Yet, still remains the
question, " Has any sheep-branding liquid been discovered
to successfully supplant the use of tar or pitch for that
purpose?" Having had several communications from the
Bradford Chamber of Commerce and the Bradford Wool and
Noil Association, calling attention to the objectionable use of
tar for branding, from personal observations and enquiries I
conclude that nothing tried so far as a substitute has been a
real success.
From a woolgrower's point of view the liquids tried so
far have caused them a greater loss than the old tar brand.
With all the latest improvements it is still necessary
to pull out all brands (a piece sometimes as large as
two hands) at the rolling table, and cast them aside,
especially pieces of wool branded with the latest liquids,
so as to be able to brand the bales "No Tar." These
pieces of branded wool are usually kept by themselves
in a lot, or scoured and then offered for sale. It is just
here where the success or non-success can be satisfactorily
judged. When these brand pieces are scoured, they usually
show the wool as if it had been passed through a bath
of greasy ink, instead of being a clean, white color, as it
should be, considering that the brand piece is taken out of the
body of the fleece. Now, take the pieces branded with the
200 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
tar — these, when washed, will shew the tar marks, which are
hard, making the wool, when scoured, speckly ; but the rest
is clean. But it is still an objectionable wool. At present it
appears that it is best for the pastoralist to have all the brands
torn out and^put into a separate sort. There are always some
causes of delay during shearing — rain or waiting for sheep.
These are the times when to supply all hands with a pair of
second-rate shears each, and have all the tar, &c., chipped off,
thus making it possible to honestly brand " No Tar," and so
meet the desires of the buyers. By doing so, the grower
loses only the tips, whilst the rest of the wool is as good as
any in the clip. The pastoralist should at all times continue
to meet the wishes of his customers, and even cater for them,
but at the same time at as little cost to himself as possible.
It is just possible that in a short time there will be a reliable
brand presented to pastoralists which will meet their require-
ments, also those of the buyers. This is an American liquid,
and has stood a satisfactory test. A skin was branded and
allowed to stand for three months exposed to all atmospheric
conditions, wet and dusty. After the wrool was taken off and
scoured, the result was most satisfactory. There was no trace
of the brand. The scouring had obliterated all signs.
It appears that in other colonies there is the same un-
satisfactory state regarding branding. Affixed is a valuable
suggestion.
SHEEP MARKING.
That farming stock should be marked in some way, is
almost an imperative necessity. This being the case, the
question is : — How can this be best accomplished with the least
pain or inconvenience to the animal, the least injury to the
wool or hide, and at the same time, be distinctive, legible,
and lasting?
About the oldest and most universal brand for sheep is
no doubt the pitch mark. But to this there is the objection
that it injures the fleece, especially fine wool. Some time ago
WOOL.
201
we learnt that Mr. John Warren, who farms on the Kubusie,
had adopted the plan of snipping off all the remains of the
pitch brand just before the sheep were taken in hand by the
shearers. The quantity of wool taken off was very trifling,
involving very litte trouble, and the improvement of the clip
was very considerable. We noticed in the wool-sales that it
obtained top prices. Of course, it was good wool, but all the
better for having none of the bits of pitch in it, which manu-
facturers so very much object to. The Leader gives the fol-
lowing particulars of a marker which has come into use in
New Zealand : — u The design shown in the illustration is
NEW SHEEP. BRAND
Lambert's sheep brand. It is a New Zealand invention,
and very largely patronised already for its simplicity,
quickness, and cleanliness. The Canterbury Farmers'
Association, New Zealand, has adopted it. The idea
is to do away entirely with the use of all branding oil
in the fluid form in the appliance, and the inventor simply
saturates fleece wool with the fluid, and then can brand up to
100 sheep consecutively with one charging. The appliance
itself is very simple, viz., a box containing a stencil at its
202 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
bottom, whilst the top serves as a guide for the handle,
which ends internally in a piston, a spring being between the
piston and the top. Of course, the fleece wool is put in
between the stencil and the piston. The impression -given is
very clean and even, and the whole brand light and small.
The brands are sold complete, with any stencil design as
desired, at IDS. to 155. each. Messrs. G. G. Turri and Co.,
patent agents, of Melbourne, to whom we are indebted for
our illustration, state that the brand is simplicity itself, being
a metal cylinder with a perforated zinc pattern projecting from
the bottom to indicate any lettering needed. The projecting
part and the cylinder are packed with wool, which has to be
saturated with the branding fluid. Then there is inside the
case a piston at the inner end of the handle stem. Once the
wool is saturated the branding may be started, and a very
large number of brands can be made without re-charging.
There is nothing to leak or spill. The impressions do not
blur, and the whole article is light, small and durable, quite
unlike some previous attempts to supersede the old-fashioned
brand. What kind of branding oil is used is not stated.
There was, however, an oil or preparation suitable for this
purpose introduced into this country about eight or ten years
ago. We have not heard about it of late, though we think it
is still in use.
WOOL. 203
BRADFORD WOOL AND NOIL ASSOCIATION, ENGLAND.
GENTLEMEN,
At a representative meeting- of this Association, held to
consider some items of grave interest to the trade, as per copy of
the Observer, i5th inst., sent herewith, a Sub-Committee was
appointed to enter into communication with you, and to beg1 your
hearty co-operation in helping to abrogate the evils complained
of, viz : —
1. To advise your woolgrowers to abstain from using- tar or
pitch in marking their sheep ; this material damaging the
combing machines and, remaining in the noil after
combing, seriously detracts from the value of the wool,
causing losses through claim and much annoyance to
the trade, which could be avoided if these deleterious
materials were not used, and it would therefore be in their
(the woolgrowers') interest ; also as if done away with,
it would make the wool more valuable tor sale.
2. Again, in shearing the sheep by machinery, to caution them
(the woolgrowers) to see that their men use more care in
the process, so as to avoid the false cutting of the fleece,
thereby avoiding short bits which seriously detract from
the value, both in the working and also in extra waste.
Impressing upon you the desirability of these radical changes,
which will be to the advantage of your growers ; and hoping that
you will give us your hearty support,
I remain, Gentlemen,
Yours respectfully, on behalf of the Committee,
ROBT. PRATT, President.
By this mail we are sending you samples of the goods made,
in the undyed, as well as the dyed state, shewing you the faults
complained of, by which you will at once perceive the serious
damage caused by the tar or pitch in the wool.
204 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
HINTS TO SELECTORS AND FARMERS.
There are many energetic, industrious, and struggling
men in these colonies, making their homes in the bush,
hoping that they will be able to make an honest living for
themselves and their families, besides trying to save a few
pounds for a time of sickness, or when old age creeps on.
To these willing and desirable settlers, who have had but
little opportunity of obtaining experience with land and stock
other than their own, the following few notes will, I trust, be of
substantial use. All who start a new business, as a rule,
experience much suspense, and frequent disappointments ;
and a little knowledge gained from others may be useful, if
from those who have (to use a current phrase) gone through
the mill. We are told, and I do not for a moment dispute the
fact, that to make small selections and farms pay, and give the
most satisfactory results, sheep must be coupled with farming
and grazing. These. branches in all other countries go togther,
and the same principles are equally as important to our small
holders. The land in these colonies, as well as in other
countries, is gradually, but surely, becoming more valuable,
therefore dearer to holders ; and rents and taxes are ever increas-
ing. To meet these ever increasing demands, it behoves all
settlers to consider well what will give the best and quickest
returns. The first object to be studied is the nature of the pas-
turage ; also the position, whether convenient to rail or near a
town. It is granted that sheep have to play a very important
part in the settlers' programme. After the fertility of the soil
has been duly considered, the supreme question is what kind
or breed of sheep is best suited for the particular nature of the
soil, because if there is little fertility there will be no luxuriance
in the pasture. Pasturage has the greatest influence upon
sheep, and upon the pasture depend the quality and quantity of
the wool. But there is also another equally important matter
— that is the mutton-bearing capabilities of the different
WOOL. 205
breeds.* Soils consisting" of decomposed granite, which are
rich in potash, are not very favourable for sheep ; but if it is
decided to have them, the heavy orcrossbreds must be chosen
in preference to the light merino. The soils much appreciated
by any class of sheep, but more especially the finest merino,
have a limestone or sandstone formation, upon which the
finer grasses flourish. Upon carboniferous soils, sheep are
bred and reared with great success. The grasses named below
.will give a good idea to selectors and farmers what will give
the best returns.
Sweet-scented vernal grass is found upon every kind of
soil in the old country, is a true permanent pasture grass for
general purposes, and is an early grass. Sheep will eat it, but
are not partial to it, and they will not eat if there is any white
clover or meadow foxtail. The heavy English Lincolns,
Leicesters, Cotswolds, and these breeds crossed with the
merino will do best on it.
MEADOW FOXTAIL GRASS. — This grass grows freely
upon a clayey, loamy soil, is very nutritive, and the heavy
merino and Downs sheep are very fond of it. It is a good
fattening grass.
SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS. — Is an early grass,
but exhausts the soil. Suitable for middle and heavy breeds.
SHORT BLUE MEADOW GRASS. — Grows in drier parts of
heavy land ; is nutritious, but not sufficiently so to make up
for its unproductiveness. The heavy breeds of sheep will eat
it. Not a good fattening grass.
ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS. — To be found on
rich, moist soils and sheltered situations, and is a very valu-
able grass. It does not grow well upon high and exposed
grounds, and yearly diminishes, and dies out in four or five
years' time. It differs greatly from many other grasses ; the
straws at the time of flowering become weak and tender,
See Pages 208 to 212.
206 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
but as they advance towards the period of ripening, the seed
becomes firm and succulent. It is ' highly nutritive, and
sheep are exceedingly fond of it. For cross-breds and merino
wethers, for fattening, it is specially adapted.
SHEEP'S FESCUE. — It has a very soft and fine foliage,
and is consequently better adapted to the teeth of the sheep
than larger ; Linnaeus affirms that sheep have no relish for
hills and heaths that are destitute of this grass. In Tartary
the shepherds make their summer where this grass is very
abundant, on account of its being so wholesome for the
sheep. All kinds of sheep are exceedingly fond of it, and
they thrive wherever it is found. This is one of the best
species for the finest woolled merinos.
ROUND-HEADED COCKSFOOT GRASS. — This is a perma-
nent pasture grass, and is exceedingly productive and
nutritive. A good fattening species.
WELS-H FESCUE. — Is rich, succulent and productive.
Sheep are very fond of it, and it is very suitable for the finer
breeds.
NARROW-LEAVED MEADOW GRASS. — A good spring
grass, grows rapidly, and is very valuable for permanent
pastures where the soil is retentive. Is one of the best of the
finer or dwarf-growing grasses, and is most valuable for
sheep. Very suitable for fine merino-woolled sheep.
MEADOW FESCUE GRASS. — Constitutes a very consider-
able portion of the herbage of all rich, natural pastures.
Best suited for heavy breeds of sheep.
RYE GRASS. — Sheep eat it, more particularly in its earliest
stages of growth, in preference to most others, but after the
seed approaches perfection they will leave it for almost any
other kind. It exhausts the soil greatly. For fattening
purposes and the heavy breeds of sheep it is most suitable.
CRESTED DOG-TAIL GRASS. — Is an excellent grazing
pasture. The merinos and Southdowns are remarkably fond
of it, and prefer it to most other kinds.
207
CAT'S-TAIL MEADOW GRASS. — An early grass, is very
nutritive, and lasts well On to winter. Is very fattening, and
heavy sheep do well on it.
YELLOW OAT GRASS. — Found in dry soils, and readily
eaten by sheep, especially the fine-woolled breeds.
MEADOW CAT'S-TAIL GRASS (TIMOTHY GRASS). — Very
valuable as a permanent pasture, when mixed with other
grasses, on account of its early herbage, its great productive-
ness, and the superior proportion of the nutritive matter which
it contains. Is most useful in the form of hay for sheep. Is
a good fattening grass ; the crossbreds and the heavy breeds
do well on it.
BEXTS. — The different species of bent, although common on
almost all poor lands, possess no great value. Sheep that
frequent hills are fond of it, and will leave all other kinds of
pasture in order to graze on the common bent. It is more
suitable for fine-woolled sheep,
Many of our selectors and farmers having the good
fortune to be possessors of rich land, intend to adopt
the grazing or fattening business. For this an improved
system of husbandry is necessary, and crops must be
grown specially adapted for early fattening. The turnip is a
most useful food for fattening purposes, besides it increases
the fertility of the soil in the least troublesome and expensive
way. Upon the nature of soil depends trie kind
of turnip to be grown. The common \vhite field
turnip is best suited for light and sandy soils. The
Swedish should be cultivated upon heavy lands. Swedish
turnips are the densest and least liable to rot, and they have
the most nutrition. It is said that half-a-pound of Swedish
turnip produces no grains of nutritive matter, and the same
quantity of the garden turnip, which is second in the order
of nutrition, contains only 85 grains. The proportion of
nutrition singularly varies with the size of the root in different
species of the turnip. The larger roots of the Swedes afford
208 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
a greater proportion of nutriment than the smaller ones. In
other species the moderately-sized 'roots have the greatest
quantity of nutrition.
To make the calling of the grazier most profitable,
it is necessary that there should be two different flocks
kept, one to succeed the other for fattening and
store. The former must be first turned on to a
portion of the paddock separated by hurdles, when, on
account of the power of selection which they possess,
they will scoop out the roots that suit them best, and will
come to maturity or be ready for the butcher as rapidly as if
the 'crop had been gathered, stored and afterwards given
them. The store sheep will follow them, and eat everything
that has been left. This mode of feeding requires a little
caution. The grazier must not allow the sheep to remain too
long at first on highly nutritious food.
The mangel wurzel has recently received much attention
from graziers, with good effect. It is a most profitable plant
to grow on a suitable soil, but has a tendency to deteriorate
the soil..
The selector having carefully studied the nature of
his land, is now in a position to make a choice of
sheep that are best adapted for the same. The grazier or
farmer, in selecting sheep must have an eye to the
carcass as well as the wool. What is wanted is to
produce a good-sized body with rich flavoured meat,
which, if the local markets are fully supplied, can then
be exported to the British markets. It must be well-
known to many that the merino itself is not the most suitable
mutton for the exporting trade, the general objection being
that it is too thin, with no bold, round legs, fine, large
shoulders, or good square loins, as are found in the Dowrns
breeds, which are termed " prime mutton," and always realise
the highest prices. Many settlers will find out that if they
keep to the pure merino they will not be so profitable as other
breeds, being much longer in coming to maturity, as also are
WOOL. 209
their lambs. They will find out also, that the heavy breeds,
such as the Lincoln, Leicester, and Romney Marsh, can also
be misplaced, and will give poor returns. The Lincoln is
next to the Cotswold, the largest of all English sheep, and
produces a long, strong, and lustrous, heavy fleece. On
many of the farms in Lincolnshire these sheep produce very
great weights, and I have handled large stacks of classed
fleeces (brook-washed) that averaged from 25 to 30 pounds
each. When an apprentice, I took the average of a pile of
Lincoln fleeces classed for a special firm. I counted the
fleeces when packing, and after all were weighed, the average
was 28|lb. per fleece, which were sold at 28jd. per Ib. The
mutton of the Lincoln is not to be compared with most other
breeds, and is also the coarsest of all mutton breeds, besides
yielding a great quantity of fat, and they are very slow in
maturing. They produce heavy-weights varying from 150 to
2Oolbs. dressed, at 4 to 5 years old. Very frequently
unusual weights are registered. I have known fat wethers
cut 24lbs. of wool, and when slaughtered and dressed weigh
26olbs. ; forequarters, each 73lbs. ; hindquarters, 57|lbs.
There was a great quantity of fat, which was 9 inches thick
on the top of the ribs. Crossing with the merino requires
judgment, as the two breeds are very different in size, and the
loss of the dam frequently happens at the lambing time. If
merino ewes are chosen for the purpose, they should have the
largest frames it is possible to get, when the death-rate at the
lambing season, to a great extent, will be reduced. The
Lincoln-merino cross for both wool and meat purposes has
given satisfactory results in many districts. For export and
local use, the meat resulting from this cross is to be preferred
to that of either of the pure-breds. The heavy gross carcass
of the former is reduced in weight, and has a finer grain
without large junks of fat, is more serviceable, is of a better
all-round quality, and a more profitable meat for the
house-keeper. The wool is also of a very desirable type, and
is a class that finds a ready sale. This becomes still more
210 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
valuable when the cross-bred ewes are put to the merino rams,
and produces a come-back wool which last year, in many
sales, realized more per Ib. than the pure merino. Lincolns
require low-lying country, with a good supply of rich
grasses ; the crossbreds must have good pastures, which
must be dry.
Leicesters are great favourites with many of the
colonial graziers and farmers, for crossing with the
merino to produce both a good class of mutton for
export as well as an excellent and valuable type of
wool. When it is taken into consideration that these two
properties are obtained at a much earlier age than from any
long-woolled breed of sheep, it is not to be wondered at that
this cross is so much in favour. The fact of early maturity
is in itself important to our settlers. The Leicesters
require good pasturage, and when so placed, will weigh at
from one to two years old 90 to 144 Ibs. per dressed sheep.
At 32 months old they have weighed as much as 368 Ibs.
alive, and 248 Ibs. when dressed ; whilst the ordinary fat
wethers dress from 140 to 170 Ibs. These sheep have not
as much fat as the Lincoln, and what there is, is more evenly
distributed throughout the lean, whilst the bone is much finer
and lighter. When crossing with the merino, they give
better results than the Lincoln, and being a smaller-framed
animal, the risks at the lambing time are not so great. The
mutton is more palatable, as well as being less wasteful,
and is in much favor in the Home markets. Improvement
in the wool is very noticeable by the introduction of the
merino strain, which makes the lustrous, lengthy, bold
Leicester staple into one of a much finer quality, adding more
softness, elasticity, and quality, and greatly enhancing the
value. This type of wool has done remarkably well for several
seasons, and is probably the most profitable to grow.
Romney Marsh sheep, in a low-lying marsh, or bleak
exposed localities, are by far the best of all breeds, and re-
quire no artificial feeding. For a flukey country they have no
;
WOOL. , 211
equal, and will live and thrive when all other breeds fail.
Under the above circumstances, they are truly a poor farmer's
friend in every respect. They produce a most desirable
mutton ; at three years old wethers will dress at from i6olbs.
upwards, whilst the ewes will go from i2olbs. to i4olbs. at
the same age. The ewes are the most prolific of all breeders,
and most excellent mothers. They frequently bear three or
four lambs at a birth, and, if the pastures are good, the lambs
will compare most favourably with lambs from either Lincoln
or Leicester ewes that have given one lamb only. The lambs
are of early maturity, and fit for the butcher without any care
or attention. The wool of the Romney Marsh or Kent is of
a very useful type, is called demi-lustre, and is a class coming
between the lustres (Lincoln-Leicester) and the English fine-
wools (Downs breeds). In suitable localities, the crossing of
the Romney Marsh with merino is receiving much attention,
and very favorable accounts have been given of the results.
The crossbred lambs are said to be well-formed, strong, and
healthy, and as some of the ewes have three and four lambs
each, all the good qualities are confirmed. The lambs' wool
is very showy, bright, of good length for the age, and nice
quality. The bold staples have an admirable crimpy forma-
tion, which is readily bought at an advanced rate on that of
the Romney Marsh.
Cotswold is another very useful breed, and one that
would be suitable to many of our settlers, both for their
adaptability to stand exposed or bleak situations, and to
endure hard, rough times. They are the largest-framed sheep
and put on flesh rapidly, and when fit for the market weigh
200 Ibs. and over at an early age. The ewes are splendid
mothers ; give two and three at a birth, and the lambs mature
at an early age. The mutton is rather coarse, and suitable for a
cold country, but when crossed with the merino it is greatly
improved, and for exporting is a profitable class. The wool
of Cotswold sheep is very long, coarse and strong, but if they
are crossed with the finer-woolled sheep the wool is
wonderfully improved, and finds ready sale.
212 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
The Downs families are numerous, and are the most
important of all English breeds for the butchers, and are called
the prime mutton classes. Of all sheep, there is not a single
breed that grows into such a beautiful symmetrical form.
All parts of the carcass, whenever cut into joints, are full,
bold, and carry a great proportion of rich, succulent, fully-
flavoured, lean meat, with a desirable quantity of fat, and it
always brings more per Ib. than that of any other class. The
advantages to be gained by breeding these sheep are many ;
they are very hardy, coming next to the merino, and will live
where other breeds will perish. They are excellent feeders,
put on flesh rapidly, and at an early age (12 months) will
yield from ;olbs. to Solbs. dressed weight. The ewes are
splendid mothers, very prolific ; their lambs have no equal
for weight, at any age, and are great favourites with the
butchers. To make a choice for all-round qualities, the
Hampshire Downs sheep are the most profitable, whilst the
South Downs and Shropshires follow in order. For crossing
with the merino any of the three last-named would be of
great service to any selectors who have dry, thin-grassed
country. Being of a fine-woolled and meat species, with
constitutions almost equal to the merino, they are the most
natural and best adapted for crossing in suitable situations.
The carcass of the sheep produced by the Downs-merino
cross is not the least deteriorated, weighs fully as much as the
first-named breed, and, as a marketable mutton, there is
no better or safer class to place before customers, for it takes
its place as a prime mutton.
The introduction of the merino strain has a beneficial
effect upon the wool. The comparatively straight-haired
and thicker-fibre Downs wool is considerably toned down,
and has become a style with more character, with close
crimps, more elasticity, softness, and an additional length
and weight.
WOOL-CLASSING. 213
WOOL-CLASSING.
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN CLASSING.
MERINO WOOL.
COMBING. — Implies that the wool is a fair length, and
better adapted for combing purposes than the clothing
process.
FIRST COMBING. — A distinguishing name given by the
wool-classer, denoting that it is a desirable length for comb-
ing. This sort represents the great bulk or average quality
of the combing wool of the clip.
SUPER-COMBING. — Consists of the very best combing
wool of the clip, being much finer than the first, and, gener-
ally speaking, the staple will not be as large in its formation.
SECOND COMBING. — Contains all the bold, robust wools,
generally found to be longer and deeper grown than the
first combing.
CLOTHING. — A name given to imply that the wool is of a
shorter growth than the combing of any clip.
FIRST CLOTHING. — Corresponds with the quality of the
first combing, differing only in length.
SUPER-CLOTHING. — The shorter fine fleeces of the same
quality as the super combing.
SECOND CLOTHING. — A convenient sort, taking all the
coarse, short fleeces, or those fleeces too short for the second
combing.
HOGGET, TEG, OR HOG FLEECE. — Is the name given to
the first fleece of a sheep which has not been shorn as a
lamb.
214 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
SHURLED HOGGET FLEECE. — Meaning that it is the first
fleece clipped off a sheep that has been shorn as a lamb.
WETHER FLEECE (Colonial). — All fleeces shorn off a
castrated male sheep after they have had their first or hogget
fleeces removed.
WETHER FLEECES (English). — All fleeces clipped off
ewes or wethers after their first or hogget fleece has been
removed.
EWES' FLEECES. — Fleeces shorn off female sheep.
RAMS' FLEECES. — Fleeces shorn off a male sheep.
LAMBS' WOOL. — Wool shorn off a lamb.
SKIRTINGS. — Are the edges of the fleeces taken or
skirted off by the men engaged to skirt and roll fleeces.
BROKEN. — A sort made from the large pieces skirted off
the fleece.
IST PIECES. — A name given to the largest of the skirtings
after the broken has been picked out.
2ND PIECES. — Are the trimmings of the ist pieces and
the smaller pieces that will not fall through the screen of the
piece-picking table.
LOCKS. — Applies to all the smaller pieces that fall
through the screen of the piece-picking table, also the
trimmings of the sheep too small to be put into the 2nd
pieces.
TOP-KNOT. — The wool clipped off the forehead and the
poll.
NECKS. — Are the wool grown on the neck, and are
generally inclined to be of a thin growth and generally full
of moits. In skirting it is advisable to take these necks
out and make a separate sort. By allowing them to remain
on the fleece, especially if the latter is free, the moits in the
neck would have a detrimental effect, which the buyer would
take advantage of to the detriment of the grower.
WOOL-CLASSING. 215
WOOL CLASSING. — Is the placing of whole fleeces into
different classes or grades, according to their length, quality,
condition, and color.
This is about the most important and responsible position
in connection with the shearing-shed, and at the same time,
one of the most abused ; responsible — because a clip handled
and classed as it should be, enhances the value of each grade
or class, if it be placed in such a manner so as to meet the
wants of buyers ; abused — it is also to an alarming extent ; if an
incompetent man is allowed to have control of the work, who
will make numbers of unnecessary sorts, and, in the end, not
one class distinct in itself, so that neither the owner nor the
classer himself knows one sort from the other. Without
doubt, there are not many, certainly not more than 30 per
cent, of efficient wool-classers, and these are as competent
as can be found in any country where wool-growing is a great
industry. When visiting wool sheds where the proficient
wool-classer is in charge, one is at once struck with the tidy,
business-like look of the wool room ; no accumulation of
fleeces on the floor ; no big stack of pieces waiting for the piece-
pickers; and the classing-table not filled or half filled with
fleeces waiting to be placed in their respective bins. Such a wool-
classer will have his bins marked ist combing, 2nd combing,
ist clothing and 2nd clothing distinctly, so that no mistake
can be made in placing the different qualities of the fleeces.
There will be also provision made for the ist and 2nd pieces,
stained, bellies, black, cast fleeces, whilst at the end of the
week the locks from under the skirting tables will be removed.
On the other hand, when a would-be wool-classer with a
pushing propensity, who, by cheek and a glib tongue has got
the position, is in charge, the wool room is in confusion, wool
trampled upon, heaps of fleeces and pieces lying about, whilst
the partition for the different classes of fleeces will be found to
contain regular mixtures of qualities and conditions. It is
acknowledged that there are fully 70 per cent, of these unfit
wool-classers employed on the Australian sheep stations, and
216 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
if the owners could only realize the amount of money lost by
employing unqualified men, they would be a little surprised.
It would be far better and a saving of money not to class at
all, than employ an incompetent man. Competent classing
gives confidence to buyers, Avho will bid to their utmost limit
to purchase wrhat they require either in combings or clothings.
A buyer, who is purchasing for a manufacturer who wants
nothing but a combing wool, is naturally willing to even stretch
a point if he can purchase just what he wants. He does
not want to buy a clothing or a short wool for which he has
no use, and, therefore, must sell to the user who can use it.
He will always pay a greater price for what he requires than
for long and short and mixed up lots. Very rarely does a
manufacturer use long and short wools in his factory ; his
business is confined to the one or the other, either combing
long wools for the smoother yarns or the clothing (short) for
woollen goods, made of a yarn constructed in a way diametri-
cally opposite to that made from a combing wool. Under these
conditions a woolgrower must see that he acts against
himself if he does not class his wool to suit the many
different buyers, by placing the same in the handsjof a qualified
classer. There is fully i^d. per Ib. difference in a classed
and skirted lot of wool, compared with one put on the market
just as it comes off the sheep, making a difference of a little
over £2 per bale, which in most instances go a long
way to pay the shearing expenses. Also there is a
difference of J^d. to J^d. per Ib. between an unclassed lot
that has been skirted, or from 95. to i8s. per bale in favour
of the latter. Again, a careful classer will look and see that
his pieces are properly sorted. Here is a much greater
margin in favour of classing, and very often the enhanced
prices obtained for the well-got-up pieces will pay for all
classing, wool-rolling and skirting. First pieces well got up
will realise from id. to i^d. of the price of the first fleece,
2nd pieces from 2d. to 3d. below ist pieces, while if
the pieces are mixed or unsorted they will bring but
WOOL-CLASSING. 217
}4d. per Ib. more than 2nd pieces. A shed wool-
classer, who takes a thorough interest in his work,
will never commence by throwing his fleeces into the different
bins straight off. The first duty is to be particular in getting
the different standards of the different classes. In the varied
districts and climates of these colonies, more particularly those
of New South Wales, we find very many different types and
qualities of both the merinos and crossbred wools, and it would
be impossible to have the same standard of quality and con-
dition throughout. Take, for instance, a comparison between
a Riverina clip and one from Mudgee. In length, what would
be a clothing in the former district would be a combing in the
latter, and so, throughout the whole of New South Wales,
would the different classes of wool differ, either in length, con-
dition, colour, or quality. A wool-classer, therefore, must
form his standards according to the wools he is handling, and
not try and force sorts or classes, as many are inclined to do,
according to the style of wool he may have handled a few
hundred miles distant. Take the wool as it is and class it to
the best advantage, making as few sorts as possible, but let
them each be distinct and uniform. To do this it is advisable
to place the fleeces opposite and near the different bins into
which the classer thinks they should go ; and as the shearers
at the commencement or change of different flocks do not go
too fast, this can be done without much inconvenience. The
greater portion or average of our flocks are combing wools,
the bulk will go into the first, and should be as uni-
form as possible in quality, length, color, condition,
and perfectly sound. Second combing should be also found
differing from the first in length and quality, being of a
longer, more shafty and deeper growth. Frequently, a super
combing is made. Super combing sort, on many stations, is
often made, when really there is not a Ib. of superior wool on
the place. This is forcing a sort, the making of which is a
mistake, and shews a want of practical knowledge. This
sort should contain nothing but the very finest of fleeces, and
218 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
will be found to be a little shorter and finer than the first,
possessing a free growth, with plenty of character, elasticity
and softness. The clothings are divided into first, seconds,
and supers also. The first is of the same quality as the first
combing, and should be similar in all respects, excepting
length, which should be much shorter than the av^age
combing length. In wool-classing, clothing means shortness.
Second clothing contains all fleeces of short and coarse
growth of the second combing quality, often irregular in
length, sometimes being of a bold, open, fuzzy class, and
often short and strong or rough. Super clothing will contain
the very fine short fleeces, with distinct character, light, free,
of a silky texture and a kind handle. But in any case I
would advise the supers combing and clothing to be of a high
quality, of silky texture and good condition. In addition to
the above general classification, it will be found that there will
be many fleeces come on to the table quite unsuited to be put
with the main classes of the wool. These are the heavier
condition wools of a brown yolky character. There may
be also many of a light color, but very sappy, which
must be kept separate, and should be pressed by them-
selves and given a different brand or name — say, 4i Fleece,"
or just "Combing." It must be remembered that the
buyers, when estimating their values, consider first shrinkage,
or what per cent, the wool will yield in its scoured state ;
if they find a sort mixed, or varying much in condition
the values will be made according to the very greasy, which
might be fully from 10 percent, to 20 per cent, more weighty
than the general bulk of the wool. If on the other hand, the
buyers find in a clip a heavy conditioned sort on offer, they at
once have confidence and will give the utmost limit of their
valuation. Another sort will turn up in the shape of badly-
bred, straight, rough, hard fleeces, which should be kept to
themselves also, and not mixed with the general clip. In a
merino clip it is best to have these pressed separately, and on
no account give them the station brand.
:
WOOL-CLASSING. 219
CROSS BREDS.
When there is a cross-bred flock to handle, it is necessary
also to make as few grades as possible, and never make a
clothing sort. The length of any cross-bred is considered
sufficient for combing purposes. Three sorts, it will be found,
will cover all requirements, often only two are necessary.
The general average of the fleece should be made into the
fine sort, and if a super is made, it must be the smallest
grown, and much finer than the fine. In the super class
great notice should be taken of the general formation of
the wool, selecting for fineness, closeness or density
of staple, a distinct crimp, and freedom, i.e., staples
clear, fibres lying parallel, in no way crossed or
mixed, devoid as near as possible of noily matter, with a soft,
silky texture. In different crosses the colours vary much.
The Lincoln and Leicester-merino will be found to be of a
more glossy appearance than the Romney and Border
Leicester-merino crosses, which differs again from the Down-
merino cross, which are not nearly so bright. The fine
•contains the great bulk of the clip and from its standard the
super and strong should be made, the two latter being really
requisite to keep the fine uniform, it being the average
throughout, in length, quality and condition. The strong
sort will contain all wools of a much coarser description ; in
the merino arid lustre cross will be found a deeper and much
brighter or a demi-lustre wool, whilst the merino Downs will
be of a much finer and shorter growth and not so bright as
the above.
CLASSING FOR CONDITION.
On many well-conducted stations where the sheep are
carefully cultivated, so as to bring out their high-class wool-
bearing properties, there is not so much necessity for elaborate
grading of the fleece. These generally are medium to smaller-
220 AUSTRALIAN' SHEEP AND WOOL.
sized stations, having" sheep well bred, and kept up to
a high standard by a systematic yearly classing and
deep culling, so that there is a great uniformity of
type throughout the whole flock. Under these circumstances
the wool is so regular, both in length and quality, that it
would be almost impossible to make distinct sorts except for
condition. When such is the case, make two sorts, calling
one the first combing, which would include all wools of the
brightest colour and the lightest in condition. The second sort
should be entirely confined to those fleeces of a brownish
appearance, generally caused by the heavy condition of the
yolk. The two sorts may be of equal quality in every respect,
but the presence of a greater quantity of yolk in the one really
causes the difference in the two sorts. A wool carrying loper
cent, more yolk than another of the same quality has a differ-
ence of about id. per Ib. in the respective values, being a
great consideration with the buyers.
HOGGETS.
There is no class of wool grown on a station that requires
more careful handling and sound judgment to do it full justice
than the hoggets. There are two kinds of hogget wool on
many stations — a real hogget and a shurled hogget. It is
most necessary to keep them separate, even if length only is
taken into consideration. On stations where there are two
lambings we invariably find that the older lambs are shorn,
and the small later ones are allowed to go without having
their fleeces interfered with. In other instances only the
large lambs are shorn, leaving the smaller animals untouched.
Under these circumstances, at the end of twelve months,
when the shearing time comes round, the lambs have
developed into hoggets of the two kinds, real hoggets and
shurled hoggets. If these have been running together it is
necessary and advisable to draft one from the other before
WOOL-CLASSING. 221
shearing, as there is a perceptible difference in the
appearance of the fleeces, and even in length. The hogget's
wool will have a special curly pointed spiral tip, and invariably
has a rougher or a fuzzy look, whilst the shurled hoggets
will have a tip resembling more that of an older sheep, and
the wool will be much more uniform in length throughout. In
the sampling room there is always a danger of the buyers con-
demning the whole of the hogget clip in a mixed class if
they see the pointed staple of the hogget and the square, level
tip of the shurled hogget together, and will even contend that
one is a young wool, the other from older sheep. So much
for appearances. In a fair average season the hogget wool
has a much better and a more taking appearance than any
other class of wool grown on the same country ; besides, the
young wool has more nature, softness, and a more inviting
colour, with general good texture. Under these circumstances
the hogget clip will sell for more per Ib. than other wools,
and is a good recommendation or advertisement, and will, as
it is frequently said, sell the whole clip. It is necessary,
therefore, to pay great attention to the general get-up and a
little extra trouble will repay handsomely. These young
sheep are naturally very lively and frolicsome, and in racing
about together with the object of seeking the finest and
freshest feed, especially under bushes, they naturally collect
more foreign matter, especially about the head, front, and
neck, in the shape of small sticks, twigs, seed, burr, etc.
All throughout a hogget wool the moits are more
numerous, and it is desirable to have the affected parts
removed from the fleece, which will be found mostly on the
back of the neck, breast, shoulder points, and britch. There
is not much difference in the method of classing hogget's
wool in comparison with that of older sheep, only that
the young wool can be thrown up, or placed more into
the top sorts. According to quantity or numbers I
would make my sorts, taking care not to over-class the
222 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
true hoggets, making as much of the ist combing as
possible, the second containing only the very strong and
longest fleeces. Amongst these sheep, on account of the
irregular ages, there would be found short fleeces for the
clothing sorts ist and 2nd, but not much of the latter, whilst
it might be found necessary to make a super of the finest,
brightest, softest fleeces of a pronounced character. The
above classification will apply to all stations with an increase
of 12,000 lambs and over. Shurled hoggets' wool will be
of a more equal length, the shearing having taken place about
the same time. If there is a sufficient number of superior
fleeces to make more than a six-bale lot, it \vi\\ pay to make a
super, but they must be superior in every respect to the ist
combing. The major portion of this wool will go into the
ist combing ; the 2nd combing, as before, containing nothing
but the strongest or coarsest fleeces. There should not be
much clothing; if any, mostly ist and 2nd, the latter con-
taining really the objectionable-looking and very rough
wools. This classification will cover all stations with over
20,000 sheep.
CLASSING LAMBS' WOOL. — The classifying of lambs'
wool is the real hard work as far as a wool-classer is
concerned. The first duty is to see that the tables are
covered with a cloth, clean bags, or packs, so as to prevent
any of the small-grown wools from falling through on to the
floor. This class of wool is brought on to the tables much
mixed or intermingled, so that the table hands are fully
employed in looking over and taking out all the belly wool,
stained, inferior, and dirty ends, so as to leave the rest as
presentable as possible. Much of the classer's hard w^ork can
be obviated if he will only give certain instructions and insist
upon them being carried out. In reality there are only two
sorts of body wool, the longer and bigger grown lambs' wool,
and the smaller or shorter grown wool. Usually a picker-up
has two boards with which to gather up the wool, which is
WOOL-CLASSING. 223
mostly so short that it will not hold together as in a full-grown
fleece. In picking up with these boards, however carefully
the work is done, a great amount of trimmings, stained,
and fatty ends come up to the table, where the table
hands do their work by taking out all faulty, dirty ends and
objectionable parts. At this stage of picking up, a classer
can make his own and the table-hands' work much
easier by insisting that only one fleece or wool that comes
from a lamb is brought up at one time, and never allow
more under any pretext, so that the longer lambs' wool is kept
separate from the shorter. There are really only two sorts to
be made after the trimmings have been taken out of the body
wool, viz., first, if of good quality, nice length, bright, and
light, when it may be branded super. (In classing lambs,
length and bulk are the first considerations, length being the
only difference between the better sorts.) The next sort may
be equally fine, as good in general appearance, but of shorter
or smaller growth, being from the younger lambs, and if the
best sort is called super, then this may be branded ists. The
skirtings or trimmings of both the bigger and smaller lambs,
after the stained has been removed, may be called 2nds,
Bellies are usually kept by themselves if of fair growth and
holding together, but if anyway bitty they may be put in with
the 2nds. A classer should handle and pass all the body
wool through his own hands to be certain that all the inferior
and dirty pieces have been taken out. If there are more than
six (6) tablehands doing this kind of work, a couple of good-
sized baskets would be useful, in which to put one of the best
sorts, so as to keep the classing-table for one sort at a time.
CLASSING' BLACK OR BROWN WOOL. — If there is a
quantity of this class it would pay well to make a distinction
in the coloured wool. All the black fleeces, those without any
traces of white or grey fibres, should be kept and
made into one sort. The presence of anything but
the one colour would be an objection to the buyer.
224 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
These wools are for a special purpose, and are made into a
cloth used by priests and monks in different ''monasteries"
for certain religious services or festivals. On these festivals,
the cloth has to be purity itself, a natural self-grey, produced
without the aid of any dye ; such wools are scarce indeed,
and if a few bales of this class can be made, a high price will
be obtained. Anything brown or grey can be classed if there is
a sufficient quantity to make, say, a six (6) bale lot of each ;
if not, make one lot. The manufacturers of the now
fashionable underclothing called "Sanitary, or natural
wool garments," are always open to purchase these lots
of coloured wools, such as brown or grey in their shades
and varied colours. Sanitary clothes are made of wool
of various degrees of natural greys, and are not dyed,
but with the adding of white, different shades are
obtained. If there is a quantity, say 6 bales or over, it is
advisable to skirt lighty, putting the skirts, bellies and locks
together as pieces. In a flock giving less than six (6) bales,
roll neatly without skirting. Skirtings and bellies are always
in demand for making the lower-dyed woollen goods, such as
horse-rugs, blankets and carpets.
CLASSING ENGLISH WOOLS.
The classification of English wools on stations or farms
is not so necessary as merinos, if for one thing only — that is,
the quantity. No small clips of a few hundred, or even a very
few thousand fleeces, would it be advisable to class ; the
main object is to skirt neatly, not excessively, and simply keep
the hogget fleeces from the other. When handling, say,
Lincoln fleeces, they only require trimming ;smost attention
should be paid to have the stained taken off When rolled,
keep the hoggets separate from all other wools, and sell by
themselves, as they are of more value per Ib. than wool off
older sheep. This high value rests in the extra spinning
capacity of the young or hoggets' wool ; possessing a
WOOL-CLASSING. 225
little more nature and pliability, this enables it to be spun
to a much greater extent. The Lincolns are rarely found
except in small flocks, ewes and wethers of different ages
running together. Under these circumstances, put all into
one class, calling them wethers, and keeping out the cotty
fleeces. The wool will sell equally well, probably better, than
if made into two or three smaller lots. The proper place for ex-
tensive classing is with the wool merchant, who comes between
the grower and user. Wool merchants purchase great quanti-
ties in small and large lots, classifying the same according to the
requirements of their customers and the trade generally ; one
class will consist of all the deepest grown fleeces, which
will have a lengthy, bold, massive staple, and very lustrous.
This sort will be called extra lustre, and is bought to mix
with mohair for making the heaviest damasks and furniture
cloths, also for making boot laces and bunting. The next
lot will be called wethers, whatever sex the wool has been
taken off, after the lightest and finest fleeces have been placed
in a lot by themselves. Here it will be noticed that in the
Lincoln there are only three lots which will be distinguished,
extra lustre, Lincoln wethers, and a finer sort of fine Lincoln
wethers. It is not necessary to brand with a combing, and the
term clothing is never used in these deep wrools, for the simple
reason that there is none, although attempts have been made
in that direction. The classification of the Leicesters, Cotswold
and all other deep English wools is the same as in the
Lincoln. The Downs breeds are treated a little differently.
Firstly, the first year's fleeces are kept to themselves, and
branded South Down or Shropshire Down tegs, as the case
may be, which represents the finest combing wool of
England, and which is often much finer and a far better wool
than that grown on some of the strongest breeds of merino.
The ewes' wool is kept by itself, being much shorter than the
tegs', and is of greater value as a clothing or hosiery wool.
The wethers', if of a combing length, are branded wethers
only. Generally the classing of English wools should be
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
confirfed to as few classes as possible In middle and deep
wools put ewes' and wethers' together, calling the lot wethers',
and never use the terms combing or clothing when branding
the bales.
When classing English lambs' wool in quantity (ex-
cepting the Downs), make two sorts, keeping all the strong,
hairy-stapled wools by themselves, and calling them 2nds
and the other ist lambs. Of course, the dirty ends and
bellies must be kept by themselves.
OUT IKS OF A WOOL-CLASSKR. 227
DUTIES OF A WOOL-
CLASSER.
IN connection with the wool-classer there are many
different duties which belong to his office, and for which
he is responsible. These duties may be called minor
matters, and a great number of classers will not go out of
their old orthodox methods, but consider themselves simply
the classers of fleeces, and nothing more. All this old system
is gradually changing, and now most station-holders and
managers expect something more, for they have learnt
through experience that other branches must be looked to
before the fleeces reach the classing-table. It is the duty of
the classer at the present time to have control of all the hands,
from the picker-up right up, until the bale is turned out of the
press. One of the most important things is to have an
understanding with skirters, rollers, piece-pickers, down to
the picker-up, for on their several branches depend the
proper getting-up of the clips. After the- wool-room, even
the shearing floor must be thoroughly prepared for the
work by having tar pots fixed securely and filled,
the sheep pens and the shearing board swept perfectly
clean, ready to receive the sheep and to guard against
the wool becoming dirty or soiled. It is next neces-
sary to see that the table-hands do all the repairing of the
wool-tables and fix curtains round, reaching well to the floor,
in order to keep in the locks ; also, if the bin-room is insuffi-
cient, to have old packs suspended by either rope or wire, in
which to put the lower sorts, thus avoiding a dirty floor and
trampling on any loose wools that may happen to fall. When
228 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
this preliminary work is finished, a clean sweep should be
made from end to end of the shed. When shearing has com-
menced it will repay the classer handsomely to show all hands
how the work is to be done.
The picker-up must be given to understand that a great
deal of good or bad work on the rolling-tables depends upon
him. If there is careless and slovenly picking up and throw-
ing out, then the skirters and rollers will find it an impossi-
bility to do justice to skirting and rolling. As the shearer is
finishing shearing or clipping off the fleece, the picker-up
should be in position, and as the sheep is let go he should
straighten the fleece out, which should have the flesh or newly-
clipped side upwards, and the staple tips or outside downwards.
In picking up, the commencement is made from the neck,
pushing up until the britches can be reached without standing
or trampling on the fleece. The picker-up should hold the
britches, one in each hand, and give a little shake so as to
free them from any loose, dirty locks and stained ; then gather
up the whole fleece, still retaining hold of the britches.
How TO THROW OUT A FLEECE. — At this stage often
there is much mischief done by not throwing out the fleece
straight and as carefully as it should be, thus causing much
extra work in skirting. In throwing out, the front part should
be let go from underneath first, the britches being held until
the whole fleece is spread out, then they are released. The
fleece should not be unduly stretched, but kept as nearly as
possible in its natural shape. Through stretching, the skirters
have fully 50 per cent, more ground to go over when skirting,
taking 50 per cent, more time. Again, when a fleece is
stretched the staples are opened, the wool appears thin
and open when rolled, which militates against the sale.
On the other hand, when the fleece is spread out near to its
natural size, the skirters can do their work expeditiously and
thoroughly, and when rolled it appears more compact and
dense, the staples have their natural formation, and give a
more inviting appearance, which at once commends itself to
DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSER. 229
the buyers, who will always take such a fleece in preference
(all other things being equal) to the apparently open, loose-
grown wool. Skirting comes next, and gives more trouble
to those responsible than any other work in the wool-room ;
but, if properly done, the value of the fleece is enhanced,
buyers always favouring a well got-up clip. Experience
has taught me that there are two kinds of skirters required,
one for the fast hurry-scurry Western sheds, where pace is
everything, and the other on the average-sized sheds, where
quality of work is the first consideration, and quantity next.
It has come under my notice on many occasions when table-
hands have gone to early sheds first, that two have had to
skirt and roll for twenty-five or thirty fast shearers ; the pace
being so rapid, something has to be missed, and that is gene-
rally the skirting. (It would be far better not to skirt at all, than
partly skirt.) When these table-hands have gone to the later
sheds, where good work must be done, they are some time
before they get into the way of carefulness and quality of
work, and the complaint has been that their pace was too
great for good work. If a skirter and roller can properly
keep the fleeces clear from seven or eight shearers, he is
doing good work, and if called upon to do more he must
miss some part of this work. When skirting a clean fleece —
one free from seeds and burr — it is necessary only to take off a
little of the inferior grown wool all round the fleece, in other
words to skirt lightly, but not to miss any part. If the fleeces
are burry on the edges, shoulder-points, britches, it will be
necessary to take all off, or skirt those heavily. When the
whole of the fleeces are burry or seedy it is necessary to trim,
taking off nothing but the very dirty, fatty, and stained ends.
Before rolling, tar brands must be taken out by themselves,
to be clipped off when a convenient time arrives, such as
rainy days, or when waiting for sheep.
How TO ROLL A FLEECE. — There are several ways to
roll a fleece, but only one right way. The usual method is
to throw in a little of the neck, then the sides, and commence
230 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
rolling from the britches. Although this may be considered
the acknowledged proper way, there is a great objection to it.
It is a well-known fact that if there is a weakness in our sheep
it is to be found in the back, which is the first place to look
for that defect, and is found in the greater part of our flocks.
What do we find when a fleece is rolled by throwing in the
neck first, then the sides equally? Simply that the most
defective part of the fleece is most exposed to the buyer, who
will no doubt be guided thereby when making his valuation.
My contention is, that a woolgrower, through his wool-
classer, has a perfect right, as exercised in all other trades, to
show his wares in the shape of wool to the best advantage, as
long as he does not add more to the fleece than has grown on
one sheep. The manufacturer who buys the wool, when he
has made it into yarns or fabrics, places such in the best
presentable form, so as to realise the best prices. It may be
said that the buyer will find any defect in the wool ! Let him
find it! and do not point it out to him by exposing
unconscientiously a small patch of the back, or, worse still,
the wither wool, which would be the most prominent when
the fleece is rolled as above. However small the defect, the
buyer would take advantage of it.
How TO ROLL A FLEECE TO ADVANTAGE. — After the
skirting is accomplished, throw over about two-thirds of one
side so as to cover well the back or weak part, then again throw
in a second time the same side. This second throw over will
expose the whole of the back from the neck to the britch, and
the underneath will be the entire side or the best grown wool.
Next pull over the other edge, then throw in the neck, so as
to be able to make a secure hold when fastening the fleece.
Now commence at the britch to roll towards the shoulder and
neck, and it will be seen that the back is gradually being
folded inside, and that the well-grown side is the most
exposed, as it should be. When rolling, take care not to
unduly stretch the wool, and when near the neck, with the
right hand draw out a small piece of wool, give it two twists,
DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSER. 231
so as to make a tassel, and with the left hand make a small
hole in which to put the tassel. Never put in the tassel
straight, as it would easily come out, but crosswise, so as to
make a secure hold. The fleece rolled in this manner will
show all the good wool, whilst the back is in the centre and
out of sight. This method of rolling is followed on many
stations where our best-got-up clips come from, and can be
done as expeditiously as the ordinary way, which invariably
exposes the wither wool, which is the most faulty in the
whole fleece.
As TO FASTENING FLEECES. — There are occasions when
it is not necessary, i.e., on stations where there are sheep of
high standing, and not many thousands, such as the
"Tasmanian sheds," where the shearing is thoroughly
carried out. Under the circumstances, the fastening of
fleeces is a mistake ; the wools being fine, very dense, and
not a great length, any attempt at fastening thereto only tears
the fleeces, making them both ragged and unsightly. These
fleeces can be rolled as above, but not fastened ; then put into
bins carefully side by side, like laying bricks, and, as they do
not come off at a great rate, pressing is not an urgent
necessity. Fleeces thus placed in a bin — say, 24 hours — when
the animal heat is lost, the pressers can take them up like
blocks of wood, and place in the press without any inconve-
nience. The most objectionable fastening of fleeces is by
twine, or any kind of string made of vegetable matter. There
have been many complaints ever since tying with twine was
introduced, and, however careful the wool-sorter is, twine
will find its way into his sorts. However small it may be,
when it onc2 passes through the scouring process, it invari-
ably finds its way into the piece. Frequently, as it passes
through the several delicate machines, it does damage to them,
.and when it gets into the piece of cloth it shows out, when
the cloth is rejected. The use of twine for fastening fleeces
has caused complaints to be made by the highest authorities,
-committees of Chambers of Commerce, and it is a pity that
232 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
those using twine do not fall in with the requests of their best
customers. Moreover, twine costs money, and time to use it.
As regards " tar,'1 it is better to take the brand out. The
roller should see to this before rolling the fleece.
A word of advice to the wool-classer. Never make a
valuation of the wrool passing through your hands. It must
be remembered that fleeces, and even the lower sorts, never
look so well, so full of bloom, as they appear in the bins just
off the sheep. The colour is at its best, the fleece looks bold
and lofty, and so has a more inviting appearance than when
they have been passed and knocked about in transit. Many
clips have a tendency to lose colour to a slight extent,
especially those grown on the exposed Western runs, and
a classer would be very bold to give the same valuation in the
wool store as he would on a station. The danger of a
drooping market also must be considered, for when a classer
once makes or gives a valuation the owner generally takes it
as a criterion. If the results of the sales are not something
near the prices named, there is a tendency to put the classer
into a rather awkward position, as his employer would very
probably question his abilities. Wool-classers, take advice,
and do not give a valuation when on the station.
PIECE-PICKING. — In piece-picking, to do the work as it
should be done, one man, if competent, should do for about
every ten shearers, and he will find that there is no time
to waste to keep the floor clean. This work causes both
owner and classer a great amount of trouble, as a good hand
is a rare commodity in a shed. There are piece-pickers and
piece-pickers, and if a manager is so fortunate as to secure a
good man, he should, under reasonable circumstances, try to
keep him, even at a slightly-increased wage. There is a
great deal of money lost in the pieces, more especially if
there is a tendency on the part of the management to draw
the number of hands too fine. One hand more is always safe,
whilst one too little will cause the work to be done in a
slip-shod manner, when the owner will certainly be the
DTTLKS OF A WOOL-CLASSER. 233
sufferer. In a team of six piece-pickers an extra hand is really
necessary when the ewes are being shorn, on account of
the extra stained parts found amongst the skirtings, which,
above everything else, must be picked out, or the whole lot
will suffer. Well got-up pieces are keenly competed for by
the buyers, let them be British, Continental, or local scourers,
and carefulness in their preparation certainly adds to the wool
account of the producer in a most satisfactory manner. The
piece-pickers should have sufficient room, so as not to be
forced to become cramped; let there be sufficient elbow room,
so that they may not interfere with one another. A table
six feet by four feet with a rather wide mesh of wire is used ;
if rollers, they should be an inch apart. Then, as the pieces are
being passed over, they will to a great extent free themselves
of the dirty and much stained ends, and so facilitate the work
very much. When the skirting of clean fleeces is done properly,
there will be no need of a broken sort, as the pieces of skirts
will not be sufficiently large to make that sort. Therefore the
best sort will be ist pieces, which should contain nothing but
the longest of the skirts, and be perfectly free from stained or
low dirty ends. To do this work to advantage, and also save
much time, there should be one large wool-basket placed
between every two skirters, to be carried to the piece-packing
table when full. There is a great advantage in having
baskets, as the pieces are thrown in as they are made, and so
do not get entangled or rolled about. When the baskets are
emptied on the table, the pieces are easy to handle ; being
loose and free, they can be passed on much more expedi-
tiously. On the other hand, when there is a great display in
using the broom, the skirts, being turned over and over,
become very much mixed and entangled. This, together
with the continual trampling on the pieces, detracts from their
appearance, making them bitty, dirty, and altogether un-
sightly. The 2nd pieces will consist of all the pieces
which are not sufficiently large to go with the firsts and too-
large to go through the screen or between the table rollers,.
234 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WO3L.
which should be made to revolve and not be stationary. In
the second place, much attention must be given to the
.stained, by having it all picked out, leaving the sort all one
color, and not a mixture of white and stained wool, which
will detract from the value considerably. The shearing board
sweepings should be treated separately, and on a smaller
side-table, as there is a greater quantity of trimmings, dags,
etc., than in ordinary locks, which, if allowed to be put
over the piece-table, would find their way into the locks, and
this would lessen their value. These board locks, to be done
quickly, should be brought up to the table, when all the large
pieces should be well shaken and put on the piece table,
when anything not passing through can be put into the ist
pieces. When the stained is taken out, all remaining can be
put into the 2nd pieces. What is left on the floor can be
thrown on the table, worked well over the screen, and what does
not go through after the dags are picked out can be put in the
ist locks. The small bits that have fallen through this table
can be pressed by themselves, and are called 2nd locks;
and the lots under the skirters' and piece-picking tables being
cleaner — that is, freer from discoloured small trimmings —
should be kept by themselves, making a distinct sort. It
will be necessary, when taking the locks from under the table,
to see that all the dags and stained are taken out.
SORTING BELLY PIECES.,
There is still one more important matter coming under
the jurisdiction of the wool-classer, which will add to his
reputation as a careful tradesman, and that is improving the
belly wool. Belly wool is about the best neglected sort in a
shearing shed. Care is bestowed promiscuously. It is
picked up and thrown into a basket, or sometimes a loose old
pack, and when it is full the wool is taken to the press and
baled straight off. This is one of the greatest mistakes that
any pastoral ist can make, for with a very little care (a boy
DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSER. 235
can do the work) this wool can be made worth pence a Ib.
more than if neglected. The sorting- of belly wool
was, I may claim, introduced into Queensland by myself on
many of the largest stations, and in one year upwards of a
half a million of belly pieces were sorted by my employees and
myself. Ever since my connection with the wool trade in these
colonies (18 years) the same principle has been carried out,
whether on stations or at the college. When I supply
stations with wool table hands, any owner or manager who
neglects to have his bellies sorted has himself to blame, as
the least and youngest student is very capable of doing belly
pieces for over 40 shearers. Several station-owners have been
advised to have this class of WTOO! just simply trimmed, the
short, loose, dirty ends skirted off, the long stapled bellies
thrown into one stack or bin, and the short into another sort,
calling them istand 2nd belly pieces. This getting up of belly
wool is gradually but surely gaining favour, and will pay a
great bonus for the very little outlay in labour. The skirtings
are passed over the screen, and what does not fall through
into the locks underneath should be put into 2nd pieces.
The stained finds its way into that sort. It is not requisite
to go into elaborate sorting, neither is it necessary to have
many different lots of bellies, hoggets, wethers and ewes.
By taking the stained out of all wether bellies two sorts are
all that are required — ist or long, 2nd or short. If the wool
includes some free and some seedy or burry, as we find
sometimes, make a free sort, and let the seedy go altogether.
WOOL PRESSING.
The responsibility of wool-pressing rests with the classer,
for it is he who is blamed if twine finds its way into the wool,
or if there are unsightly or uneven bales, and bad branding.
A classer should have an understanding with the wool-presser ;
firstly that he must never take the wools out of two bins and put
them into one bale without acquainting him ; nor, secondly,
() AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AXD WOOL.
allow the packs to be cut down (which must be done to make
them fit the press) inside the wool-room, as there is always a
great danger of the cuttings getting mixed with the wool ; nor,
thirdly, allow any part of the pack to be cut off and put into
the bottom of the pack in the press. This is work which is
not necessary, but if allowed will most certainly cause much of
the ravellings to become mixed with the wool, eventually
finding their way into the piece of cloth, which, when dyed,
shows two colors, since the vegetable and animal fibres will
not take the same dye ; consequently the merchant rejects all
such goods, causing many a serious loss to the manufacturer;
this, together with damage often done to the delicate
machinery by even small pieces of string, should be pointed
out to the pressers, so that all such evils may be avoided.
If there is one thing manufacturers object to above all others,
it is to find twine mixed with the wool they have bought, and
as they are our best customers their complaints should receive
every consideration. Within the last few years these com-
plaints have been numerous.
Branding the bales also comes under the control
of the wool-classer, and this should be done distinctly
and simply, but giving as much information as possible
to the buyers. Frequently the heading consists of the
name of the station, with the owner's initials or numbers
beneath, then follows the sort of wool, lastly the number.
The manner of naming the sort is the most particular thing
with the buyer, who, having several catalogues amounting to
hundreds of lots to go through in a single morning, naturally
wishes to see something on the bale which \vill guide him
and save as much of his time as possible. To meet his
wishes and convenience, the bale should always be branded
ist, or 2nd, or super, according to the class of wool it contains.
If branded ist combing, e.g., there is at once something
definite, and the buyer knows what to expect. Coming next
he sees 2nd, which at once indicates that the wool is inferior
to the ist. If super is on the bale it is sufficient information
DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSKR. 287
to give him to understand that there is something better than
that in the ist combing. Using letters to show the difference
between the sorts or classes is unwise, for the buyer has to
spend much time in finding out the many qualities under AA,
B, C, and so on. If a lot is branded 4l A combing," how is a
buyer to know whether the wool is better than wool branded
AAA ? One would imagine that wool branded with the most
letters would be the best, but they may be and they may not.
Using letters instead of the straightforward business-like ist
and 2nd only confuses, and does not give any definite
information to buyers, who may have to value probably up
to 1,000 lots in a single morning.
WOOL-PRESSERS.
All wool-classers have full control of the pressers and
pressing, for several reasons. The pressing-room is a place
where a great deal of damage can be done to the wool after it
has been most carefully treated at wool-tables and classed by
classers of the highest repute.
In the first place it is necessary for the classer to see that
the entire room, from the very back and sides of the wool-bins
to the bale storing-room, is thoroughly cleaned, and all
rubbish thrown out well away from the building or shed.
Capable pressers will then give their press a thorough over-
haul, paying strict attention to the mechanical parts, scraping
off all old grease and rust, tightening the bolts, and oiling all
joints and pulleys. Packs have to be cut down a little, so
that they will fit the lower box, but the cutting-down under no
circumstances should be allowed to be done within the walls
of the shed, but outside, so that all the loose cut twine is left
outside, lest it should find its way into the wool. The buyers
have as great an objection to the small twine as they have to
that used for tying the fleeces. Another bad practice is to
.allow the pressers to cut off any part of the pack and throw
into another pack in the press. Keep the pack intact, the
2 MS AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
sewing can then be more securely done. The practice of
cutting off parts of the pack is followed in order to save time ;
but it is an open question whether any time is lost by keeping
the pack whole. Again, when these pieces of ravelled hemp
or jute packs are put in amongst the wool with the idea of
saving a few ounces of weight, wrhich is the first consideration
of most managers, they scarcely ever give a thought to the
damage likely to be done to the whole lot of wool by including
these worthless pack-rags or ravellings. Frequently classers
are blamed for the irregularity of a bale or two in a large lot
when really they are not in fault. To protect himself, the
classer must give the pressers to understand -that under no
circumstances are they to take fleeces out of any bin but the
one containing the class of wool being pressed. It frequently
occurs that pressers will, on the sly and without asking per-
mission, go into another bin containing another sort of wool
and fill up the bale, so as to avoid delay. When that bale
is examined it is found to contain two different
classes of wool, when the unfortunate classer is
condemned for bad classing, whilst the pressers by their
underhand work come out free at the expense of someone
else. A classer will profit much by having a timely
conversation even with the pressers, for it is in their power to
do him a great deal of damage, and spoil his reputation as a
tradesman. It will be also an advantage to the classer to pay
a little attention to the handing of fleeces to the press.
However simple this may appear, buyers do like to find the
bales nicely pressed, which often gives them confidence when
valuating a lot of wool. Careful and systematic pressing
implies that a general care has been bestowed in the getting
up of the clip. Sometimes a man will go into a bin of fleeces
and take up as many as he can gather in his arms, then rush
to the press, putting the whole into the bale in a confused
mass ; under these circumstances the bales when pressed
come out in a most irregular form, some -parts extremely
tight, whilst other parts will be loose and flabby. ' But the
.DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSER.
damage does not end here, for when the bales are opened for
sorting or otherwise the fleeces are entangled, so that they
have to undergo a great deal of teasing about, which damages
the wool for sale, and, worse still, the unfortunate sorter finds
the opening and sorting very perplexing and difficult, so that
he can never make his sorts look presentable.. Fleeces should
be handed in singly .to the presser, who is tramping the wool,
and should be arranged or placed side by side, one tier at a
time, then trampled well, and so on until both boxes are
filled. When the bale is opened, the fleeces, being in layers,
will come out intact, and fit to show any buyer, and fit for any
sorter to open and sort to the advantage of the wool and
himself.
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN WOOL-SORTING.
MERINO COMBING WOOLS.
COMBING. — Wools of a suitable combing length to
distinguish it from a clothing.
MATCHINGS. — A name given to the different sorts and
parts of fleeces when they have been divided or sorted.
SUPER COMBING. — Denoting that the wool is of a high
and fine quality ; the shoulder parts of a fine fleece.
IST COMBING. — Wool taken from the sides of a fine fleece,
and the shoulder of a fairly fine fleece.
2ND COMBING. — A sort made from the shoulders of a
fairly fine fleece, and the shoulders of a good fleece.
3RD COMBING. — -Taken from the sides of a good fleece,
and the shoulders of an average fleece.
41* H COMBING. — From off the sides of an average fleece,
and the shoulders of a strong fleece.
5TH COMBING. — The wool off the sides of a strong fleece.
6TH COMBING. — Wool ta.ken from the lower part of the
thigh, and called britch or bindles.
240 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
It is not a general custom to name the sorts of matchings
by numbers ; different firms have names. For instance, one
firm will name sorts I's weft, I's warp, or A weft, A warp.
Others will call the sorts according to their spinning qualities
— 6o's, 66's, yo's, etc. As the sorter sorts his wool to certain
qualities, whatever may be the difference in the names, the
real meaning is the same for the purpose.
PICKINGS. — Are the moits picked out by the sorter, con-
sisting of straw, thorns, twigs, seed, leaves, or any vegetable
matter.
FRIES. — All the small or second cuts shaken out of the
wool.
The above-named sorts constitute the different assortments
of wool as required by the manufacturers of the finest down
to the lowest woollen cloths, even to floorcloths and carpets.
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MERINO SHORT
OR CLOTHING WOOL.
PICKLOCK. — Taken from the choicest part or shoulder of
a very fine fleece.
PRIME. — The sides of a very fine fleece, and the shoulders
of a fine fleece.
CHOICE. — Best part of the neck of a very fine fleece.
SUPER. — From the back across the loins to neck of a
very fine fleece.
FINE. — The best of an average fleece.
COARSE. — The lowest sort, consisting of the britches of
the fine fleeces and any low-grade fleece.
HEAD. — Wool taken from the head, commonly called
top-knot.
All the above names are given to the different sorts into
which the fleeces have been divided, and go under the name
of matching. For example : Picklock matching, which
implies that it is soiled fleece wool, and not skirts or pieces.
DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSER. 241
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN SORTING
MERINO SKIRTINGS.
DOWNRIGHTS. — Name given to the best of the skirtings
taken from the front part and sides of the fleece, frequently
including the bellies. The fleece must be fine.
SECONDS. — An ordinary sort, consisting of a coarser wool
from the skirts, otherwise than the britches.
ABB. — The lowest sorts of skirts, the coarse edges of the
britches.
SHANKINGS. — Short, bitty, and very coarse wool and
hair shorn off the legs.
TOPPINGS. — Dags and tar brands, cut or clipped off by
the sorter. Ordinary sheep shears are used.
WOOL-SORTING.
WOOL-SORTING is the dividing of fleeces into the different
parts or sorts it contains, each sort being of a different
quality, so that a manufacturer can spin it into an even,
regular thread or yarn. This term is frequently used when
speaking of wool-classing, but there is a wide difference
between the two, sorting being a more advanced and more
scientific work. To compare the two, classing and sorting,
one would have to say that the former was placing the fleece
as a whole into classes or grades, whilst the latter is opening
the fleece and separating or tearing off, sorting it into as
many sorts as it contains. It will thus be seen that there is a
wide difference between the two professions. A qualified
wool-sorter is always the most reliable wool-classer, but
wool-classers, in 90 per cent, of cases, cannot sort wool,
which is a much more advanced trade. To be correct, the
sorting of wool is not necessarily confined to fleece wool, but
to wool in all stages, as scoured, long, short, from locks
to the finest merino, and to the longest Lincoln. When
242 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
sorting for the manufacturer, it is done in a room specially
adapted for the purpose, generally detached, or otherwise
separated from all other work.
All the tables are arranged on the sides of the room under
the windows, as light is one of the most necessary require-
ments, and no good work can be done without it. Each
sorter's table is about seven feet by three-and-a-half
feet, and placed directly' opposite a window, and has a
partition at each end so as not to interfere with fellow-
workmen. Under the table there are three or four small
bins, into which are put the smaller sorts ; if merino, the
skirts, even if the fleeces have been skirted on the stations,
are looked to, and any short, bitty, or inferior grown
wool is taken and sorted into generally four sorts, called
shorts, each firm having names of their own, sometimes
first, second, third ; other firms will call the same sorts
superfine, super, fine, and low, and so on. In the fine
English wools these skirtings are super, taken off the edges
of the best part of the fleeces, shoulders, and bellies ;
downrights, taken off the side edges ; seconds, towards the
flank, and abb, off the britch. They may have been taken
off 20, 50, or 100 bales of fleeces. Provision is made for the
larger or more bulky sorts, in the shape of large skeps or
baskets, one for each sort. Where the best wrork is done, the
sorter has his bale or sheet of wool (the latter is the name given
to pack containing the wool, which is about 6 feet by 3^ feet)
wreighed on ; it is then taken and placed conveniently near the
sorter's stand or work space. The fleeces are then taken out of
the pack and opened singly, each one split down the centre of
the back, when it is gathered up separately, staple side up,
commencing generally (although there is no hard and fast rule)
at the neck down towards the lower part, when the britch
is thrown over the half fleece. The half fleece being gathered
up in this way one piece is placed on the floor, side or length-
wise to the bins. About six fleeces will form the bottom tier
or row, and so on, others are built up until the day's work
DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSER. 243
has been opened, which is called a pile or stack. During the
process of opening, which is done on the floor and not on the
tables, each part or half fleece receives a gentle shake to
free it of any loose pieces, etc. ; these are picked up, (not
swept up) by hand and placed on the table, after which the
floor is carefully swept, and must be kept clean when there is
no fleece-opening going on. The sorter now commences his
business of sorting, dividing the loose pieces picked
up off the floor, into the required sorts, and, being
generally short and small, they go into the different
partitions under the table. This done, and the table
or board being clear of any loose matter, the sorter
commences by taking one-half of a fleece by the back
just as it was laid on the pile, throws that part from himself
towards the window. The edges of the half-fleece are now
conveniently in front of the u operator," who commences to
take off what are called "shorts " all along the side. These
are now sorted into different qualities and put in to their
respective bins under the table. The half-fleece is now ready
for sorting or dividing ; the commencement is mostly made at
the britch, by taking it off and throwing it into the basket
containing the lowest sorts. The flank comes off next, and
is put into a skep and thrown into another skep. The rump
is next attended to, and put into another basket. If the back
is at all inferior in quality or condition, it is cut out and
placed separately ; sometimes the backs are divided into two
sorts. There are now left two of the last or highest sorts, the
shoulder and side ; when the former is now separated from
the latter, with which occasionally a front or neck part is put,
each sort is put into their respective baskets. Thus the whole
pile is treated ; and scores, sometimes hundreds, of bales are
thus treated and sorted into the sorts mentioned, each basket
containing a sort, even in quality and other respects, which are
now called " matching." It is often argued that a "sorter"
makes a greater number of sorts than a " classer " does when
classing. It is not often that there are made more than six
244 AUSTRALIAN" SHEEP AND WOOL.
sorts of " matchings " and four of shorts — in all, 10, out of a
lot of wool comprising 100 bales or even more. How many
sorts will a " classer " make on an average station, say, of
50,000 sheep? There will be ist and 2nd combings, and
clothing, probably super sorts ; then comes condition and a
lower sort of objectionable wool, besides ist and 2nd
pieces, stained and locks — in all, as many sorts as a manufac-
turer would make. An entire clip could be sorted into as few
sorts by practical wool-sorters as wool-classers will make of
fleeces, but not so quickly, although I have had four
wool-sorters, assisted by four ordinary table-hands, sort into
qualities, and pick the fleeces also for 30 shearers, and keep the
floor clean. In the time it takes a skirter and roller to fix up his
fleece, a sorter will have his fleece skirted, divided into sorts,
and thrown into their respective bins, thus saving a great deal
of skirting and rolling trouble, which is always an annoying
part of the shearing. Many, who have never visited a proper
sorting-room, have little idea as to the expertness of the wool-
sorter, who, in rapid succession will take up the half fleece,
have it divided, and each sort put into its proper place. Still
greater the surprise when they find in each basket large and
small pieces, every one matching the other in every respect,
each sort being an acknowledged spinning quality, and bought
as such. To watch a sorter is very interesting, for it must be
remembered that in all clips there are no two fleeces exactly
alike. But the sorter has to make one sort of the same quality,
however many pieces of wool there are in that particular sort.
Quickness in decision (first impression is generally correct)
good eyesight and sensitive touch, aided by a good, but not
brilliant, light, are essentially requisite to make a thorough
tradesman. When a sorter possesses these qualifications, it
is no trouble for him to see at a glance, when the wool is
unrolled on his table, where the different sorts lie, and where
he has to make his divisions. Sometimes a fleece will contain
a small portion, perhaps the size of a pocket-handker-
chief, of the best sort, while the lower sorts will consist of
DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSER. 245
larger pieces. Another fleece comes up (a finer one), probably
half of this will go into the best sort, the lower sorts will have
smaller pieces, and in such case the lowest part or britch will
be sufficiently fine to be placed in the lowest sort but one. It
is this irregularity of the size of the various pieces cut out of
the different fleeces that causes a man with half or little
knowledge to study, and even wonder, how a sorter can divide
fleeces so expeditiously and still have sorts even. The work
is not exactly completed when the wool is sorted out ; but is
passed on to another sorter, called a " looker-over," whose
duty it is to inspect generally, over a table, each sort separately,
and take out any pieces which are either too good or too low
for the quality under treatment. If there is too much contrary
wool in one sort it is generally sent back to be done over
again. This is called "sweating."
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN SORTING ENGLISH
AND CROSS-BRED WOOLS.— LUSTRE AND
DEMI-LUSTRE MATCHINGS.
SUPER. — The very finest part of a demi-lustre fleece.
FINE. — The best part or shoulder of an extra-fine lustre
fleece, generally /p's quality or counts, and above.
BLUE. — The shoulders of an average lustre fleece, Lincoln
or Leicester, of 36's quality or counts.
NEAT. — The sides af an average lustre fleece, of 32's to
34's quality or counts, according to the style of the wool.
BROWN. — Mostly from the flank, a sort coming between
the neat and britch, 28's to 3o's quality, according to style of
wool.
BREECH OR BRITCH. — The wool of the thigh; in a good-
bred fleece, the britch or the lowest part, of 26's to 28's
quality.
COW-TAIL. — Is the lowest and roughest, or the britch of a
very low lustre fleece, quality or counts ranging from 2o's to
24's. This is the lowest matching sort.
246 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
TECHNICAL TERMS GIVEN TO THE SHORTS
OR BROKES OR SKIRTINGS OF THE
BRITISH AND FOREIGN COARSE WOOLS.
FINE. — These are found only on the skirts of the finest
British and foreign cross-breds, and are taken off the
shoulder points, the neck, and sometimes sides ; frequently
the belly wool is put in, but it must be fine.
DOWNRIGHTS. — Are the shorts taken mostly from best
parts of the fleeces of the middle British breeds, a sort rarely
found on the Lincoln and Leicester fleeces.
SECONDS. — This sort consists of the best shorts or small
skirtings of the lustre breeds, which is lower than the down-
rights.
ABB. — Short bits or trimmings of the britch wools ; it is
very coarse.
LIVERY. — A lower sort than the britch, consisting of the
short bitty cow-tail, and the wool clipped off the dags. It is
generally a little stained.
SORTING ENGLISH WOOLS.
The actual operation of sorting English wools differs
very little from that of the merino. In the British and
American factories the sorting of the merino is considered
almost a separate branch or trade, and when the tradesman
has devoted the greater part of his time to it, he is rarely
suitable, in fact, he may be said to be an incompetent hand
when manipulating any other class of wool. It is just the
same with a sorter of the heavier English wools, who, after
handling the great lengthy strong grades, appears very much
out of place when sorting the fine and more sensitive merino
wool, which requires a more delicate touch. The British
wools are in great variety, from the finest Downs and Welsh,.
DUTIES OF A WOOL-CLASSER. 247
to the lengthy Lincoln ; therefore, there are a great many
different qualities for the sorter to contend with, and he is
expected to be able to sort correctly all breeds of domestic
wool.
The sorting of the lustres and demi-lustres may be called
the heavy or hard work of the sorter, as the wool is so strong
and long that it requires a good amount of strength to sever
the different qualities of the fleece. There is the same pro-
cedure in opening the fleeces as explained in Merino wool-
sorting, when the half fleece is thrown on the table. The
first part of the business is to take or skirt off any inferior-
grown or dirty short skirts, which are few. These are sorted
into their respective sorts, which are mostly of the lower
qualities, seconds, abb, and livery.
There is no fixed principle as to which end of the fleece
to commence with, the britch or shoulder ; but very often, we
may say mostly, the sorting commences at the britch. This,
of course, is the lowest part of the fleece, from which it is
severed in quick time, and thrown into the basket reserved
for that particular quality, which is always a spinning
quality. The next sort is from the thigh, which is likewise
torn off the fleece and placed according to the quality. The
flank receives due attention, and quickly finds its place in the
basket. This now leaves the side and shoulder, which are
divided according to their respective quality. Although
sorting is a most particular operation, a good tradesman will
sort his fleece and have his table clear quicker than a
shearing-shed table hand can skirt and roll his fleece. In
this manner all the different classes or qualities of the British
domestic wool are prepared for the manufacturer, varying
from 2o's to 56's spinning quality.
WOOL-STAPLER. — A wool merchant.
STAPLER. — A wool merchant who buys and sorts wool
before selling it to the manufacturer.
248 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
TOP-MAKER. — Is a wool-stapler, who, after having his
wool sorted, has it combed into sliver, then rolled into a
large ball or top ; afterwards sells it to the spinner or yarn
manufacturer.
SPINNER. — One who spins combed or carded wools into
a yarn or thread.
MANUFACTURER. — One who manipulates wool in all the
stages to produce a piece of cloth.
A PACK OF WOOL. — 24olbs. net of wool.
FADGE. — Less than half a bale of wool ; an irregular
package of wool.
BUTT. — A smaller package than a fadge.
WOOL-WASHING. 249
TECHNICAL TERMS RELAT-
ING TO THE WASHING
OF WOOL.
WOOL-SCOURING. — Denotes the passing of wool through
a process of cleansing by the use of hot water and soap.
WASHED FLEECE. — Meaning that the wool has been
washed on the sheep's back before shearing. This is an out-
of-date process, as the sheep were subjected to unnatural
treatment, by first being crowded into a sweating-room, after-
wards put under spouts, from which there was a weighty fall
of hot soapy water. This to the sheep was a distressing
process, often causing serious loss in sheep.
GOOD NOSE OR SMELL. — A term frequently used to
denote that the wool has a pleasant or natural smell ; is a
sign that the wool is in good condition.
LIQUOR. — A term used only amongst wool-scourers,
meaning that the scouring agents, soaps, etc., have been
dissolved and made ready to mix with the hot water in the
soap tank, which, when blended, is called liquor, or scouring
solution.
DRY. — When the wool has a dry or harsh touch, or
devoid of the natural woolly feel.
FREE. — When the wool is free from seeds and moits.
CLAMMY. — A wool having a heavy, greasy, claggy feel,
the result of not being thoroughly cleansed or scoured.
ROPEY. — Implies that the wool, in the process of scour-
ing, has been allowed to become twisted into rope-like
lengths.
250 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
GREEN-NIBS. — Are the tops which have not been thor-
oughly squeezed (the water remaining" in them), which, when
dried, have a greenish tint.
SPECKY. — Implies that the scoured wool has become
speckled by small specks of dirt or uneven in colour.
CANARY. — This is what may be called a new term in
scoured wool, and is used mostly in Western Queensland.
It really means a slight yolk stain, and is evenly distributed
through the wool when washed, giving a delicate yellow,
from which the name of canary is derived. Although the
wool is of a pleasing appearance, it is faulty, especially for
dyeing purposes, and will take only those dyes darker than
the discolour.
SORTING FOR SCOURING. — There is no necessity for
elaborate sorting when the wools are going to the scour, as
when the skirtings are taken off, the fleece is fairly even.
However, at least three sorts of combings and three of
clothing are necessary to suit the trade. The great drawback
to our merino wool, especially on the Western stations, is
that the backs suffer through the sun and dirt, causing them
to be very thin, light, and rough. They should therefore be
taken out of every fleece, and thrown into a sort by them-
selves. This is most expeditiously done after the skirtings
have been removed, by throwing one side or half the fleece
equally over the other, so that the edges of the fleece are even
or equal. The back in this position is near and convenient to
the sorter, and can very easily be seen on account of its thin
and dirty growth, which can now be cut out by the hands in
one sweep, taking the whole back out at once. The combings
according to their quality can be made into three sorts, by
taking the front part or shoulder for the fine or first, the lower
part put amongst the half of the middle fleeces, and the
lowest sort would contain all the lowest fleeces together with
the lowest part of the middle fleeces. This plan can be carried
out in the clothing. The above method of sorting can be
carried out to better advantage if there are large quantities.
WOOL-WASHING. 251
WOOL SCOURING.
The object of wool-scouring is to thoroughly cleanse the
fibres from all impurities, seed and burr excepted, without
damaging the minute and delicate scales, or serrations, or the
internal cellular structure, also, at the same time preserving
the natural colour. The physical properties, which are very
sensitive, require most careful treatment, so as to leave them
in a perfect state after passing through the many different
processes to which they are subjected, if satisfactory results
are to be expected. The preservation of the natural colour is
of the greatest importance ; firstly, to render the material to
be dyed as clean as possible, in order that the aqueous fluid
afterwards applied may be absorbed, and that its contents
may adhere to the minute internal surfaces of the serrations
and cells ; secondly, that the material may be rendered
whiter and more capable of reflecting the light, and,
consequently, enabling the colouring matter to exhibit more
brilliant tints.
•
If we take into consideration what is dependent upon
good scouring, it shows how all-important it is to have this
branch of the trade most skilfully executed.
There is no doubting the fact that, generally speaking,
wool-scouring in these colonies does not receive that attention
the industry deserves ; quantity of work, and not quality,
apparently receiving the greater consideration. The methods
of treating wool may be said to be, in the majority of cases,
dangerous, often leaving indications of injury to the delicate
structure, sometimes even the partial destruction of the colour.
These are serious defects, caused in part by want of knowledge
on the part of the responsible person, who does not give proper
attention to temperature. This is not to be wondered at,
when we see such operators disregarding entirely the intro-
duction of any appliance for the regulation of temperature, or
for meting out uniform treatment. Such men seem to have a
252 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
great objection . to the use of a thermometer, and resent any
suggestion as to its use, but prefer to rely upon the old plan
of immersing the hand, which at best must be a matter of
guesswork. To say the least of this method, it is very
dangerous, besides being most uncertain, as in the course of
wool-washing there is a great necessity for dabbling in cold
water ; and then when it is necessary to attend to the hot
water for soaking purposes, the sudden change makes it
impossible for the operator to judge with any accuracy
of the temperature. There is also little notice taken as to
the time the wool is allowed in soaking ; some will be
left only a few minutes, or even seconds, whilst the bulk
will remain up to half an hour. Also, the scouring or
cleansing agents are not thoroughly understood, and
do not receive that attention necessary to turn out scoured
wool in the best condition ; and through neglect of these
main factors, no wool can have a uniform colour, texture,
or touch — properties which deserve much more consideration
than they generally receive.
All wools differ in the various districts where they grow ;
some have a free yolk, and are fairly clean, and have a nice,
taking appearance ; whilst in another district the condition is
heavy, the yolk of a pasty, fatty nature, so that the wool is
much more difficult to cleanse. Other wools might be dusty
and dry, with very little yolk. All these different kinds
of wool require different treatment to remove the extraneous
matter and leave the fibre uninjured ; which cannot be
successfully accomplished by what may be called thumb rule,
a system yet in vogue at some scouring establishments, as
well as on some large stations. By a relax system wool
frequently becomes damaged in colour and nature, and is
often subjected to severe treatment, as too high a temperature,
which will partly destroy both the delicate structure and the
colour. The unskilful use of caustic soda also will destroy
the wool. Wool can be completely dissolved through the
agency of caustic soda, when it becomes a light brown,
WOOL-WASHING. 253
glutinous substance; therefore, when used, it should be placed
in most reliable hands. In fact, the use of this severe chemical
should be wholly discontinued in wool-scouring, as there are
several new soaps, the foundation of which is ammonia,
always safe to use, even by inexperienced hands. If scourers
had any conception of the damage done by unskilled operators
and the use of unnatural soaps in wool-scouring, the initiatory
process of manufacture, there would be more consideration
given to this branch of the wool industry.
The all-important object to be secured when scouring
wools, is to remove by as mild means as possible all grease
and dirt, so as to leave them in the best state for the
manufacturer. All wools can be thoroughly cleansed by
judicious treatment, but all cannot be made bright ; deficiency
of natural colour cannot be improved by the most artistic
scouring process.
There are several methods adopted when scourmg^ wool :
from the old pot-stick and hand box-washing machines,\p to
the latest steam-driven machinery. Pot-stick washing, until
lately, was much in vogue in the back country > but is now
nearly a thing of the past, and it is far better that it is so for
the pastoralist. • It must be admitted that there has been real
good work turned out ; still, there was always a great amount
of doubt, on account of the uncertainty of labour, the quality
of water, and its contamination (rendering it objectionable
and almost useless for other purposes), not to speak of waste
or loss of wool. It is gratifying to know that this plan has
been supplanted by more rational modern methods.
The hand-box system requires an unstinted supply of
water, when excellent work can be turned ouL equal to that
of any of the latest improved machinery. This may be
taken as a bold assertion, but I have only to quote* actual
facts, by referring to a brand D — Muckerawa, where scoured
combing realised 2yd., down to broken 23d. (a record price
at the time). The scouring was pronounced as faultless by
the wool brokers, buyers, manufacturers, and all connected
254 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
with the trade. This was the work of Messrs. Hayes
Brothers, Goodooga, and was hand-washed in boxes.
Hand washing boxes are arranged in a row, with a
sufficient space between them for a drainer to be fixed. These
boxes are made of wood, and are generally square, of
sufficient height and size to allow a man to reach any part
comfortably. Inside this box there is a close wire or per-
forated box, made to prevent any of even the smallest locks
of wool from getting out ; there is also a space of two or three
inches between the wire and wooden boxes, sufficient to allow
for a free flow of water. The most serviceable, as well as the
most expeditious kind of hand scouring box is arranged so as
to let in the water from the bottom, which greatly assists
by keeping the wool open, thus allowing the free action of
the volume of water to get through every lock.
Special provision must be made for a copious supply of
water, which is pumped or lifted into overhead tanks, 400-
gallon tanks, as a rule, being used, each placed so as to
supply one washer. Both in the washing and soak tanks
there are valves so arranged as to expeditiously fill and empty
the tanks, in order to minimize the loss of time. It is neces-
sary to arrange for the soaking of the wool at a convenient
distance from where the wool is washed. There should be
two soak tanks, each capable of holding at least 200 gallons
of water, this being sufficient for a bale of 3^ cwt. to 4 cwt. of
greasy wool. For heating purposes, steam jets are most
convenient, whereby the temperature can be regulated without
waste of time. Provision must be made for the proper
dissolving of the scouring agents, which is generally done in
a smaller tub <j tank with hot and cold water communication,
when the whole can be made into a liquid, or, as it is called,
liquor. • In dissolving the soap, a sufficiency for the day's
requirements is most advisable ; taking, for instance, 12 bales
of average greasy fleece. Under these conditions, take i2lbs.
of soap of good quality, making it into a liquid not too thick,
but easily handled, and with a vessel take out a twelfth part
WOOL-WASHING. 255
and put it into the soak tank with the 200 gallons of water
necessary for scouring a bale of wool. When the 200 gallons
of water in the soak has been heated (it should be regulated
by the aid of the thermometer up to 105 deg., not by the
hand), then add the liquid soap, stirring well to obtain a good
blend. The wool should be put into the soak open, and as
loose as possible, by taking an armful at a time ; it should
be pressed well down, so that the wool becomes thoroughly
immersed until the liquor has penetrated it, when it is said,
after the proper time allowance, to be thoroughly soaked. If
wool is put into the liquor in hard junks, as it would do
if taken out of the pressed bales without being teased, there
is a great danger of some of the tighter wool not receiving so
thorough a soaking as the loose wool, when an irregular
colour would be the result. The second soak can be filled in the
same manner as the first, and when finished the washer may
commence by taking the soaked wool out of the latter, placing
as much as he can lift by the aid of a four-pronged fork on to
a drainer, thence into the cleansing box, which will be filled
with water running strongly. Thus the operator will keep two
washing tanks going at the same time, inasmuch as the water
rising in force from the bottom keeps the wool open in one
tank, while he attends to the other. When the water is clean
the wool is ready to be lifted out, and is placed on the drainer
between the two boxes to drain. To let wet wool stand on the
drainer, even a short time, is very detrimental, as both the
appearance and colour are bound to suffer. Always get the
water out of the wool as soon as possible, which is best
accomplished by aid of a centrifugal drier, or, as it is called,
hydro-extractor. This is an important matter in wool-
scouring. The sooner the wool is thus freed from water the
better the colour ; at the same time it becomes more open or
bulky, and improves in appearance, and will completely dry
in a couple of hours by exposure to the sun. Wool merely
drained will take fully a day to dry, when much of the water
is dried in, making the colour dull, besides requiring several
turns, which means extra expense and time.
25() AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
There are several patent wool-scouring machines, all
invented so as to turn out the best of work in the shortest
time and at the least cost. During- my early colonial days,
when undertaking large sorting and scouring contracts, I
worked many machines of different makes, so claim to be in a
position to form a good idea as to the best. To do good,
all-round work, avoid a machine with quick action, especially
when small belts are required to work the pulleys. Any
quick action has a great tendency to knock and tear the wool
about, making it appear bitty, and often ropy, which is
considered objectionable by the manufacturers. Fleece wool
especially suffers in value when in any way twisted or roped,
causing a much greater production of noil, on account of the
combs in the combing machines having to tear their way
through. Such machines do much better with the smaller
wools, as pieces, locks, etc. Machines with long, narrow
troughs, and forks to pass the wool along, tend to rope and
tear it too much; besides, it often occurs that with the
confinement of the water flow all the wool does not receive
equal treatment. This will impart an unevenness in colour,
which will weigh against its value.
The scouring machines mostly in use by manufacturers
and commission carders and combers for woollen, cotton, and
silk fabrics consist usually of four long tanks or bowls, each
connected with the other by a revolving apron and a set of
heavy rollers. In these tanks there is a free flow of water,
the whole length and breadth, so that the wool is thoroughly
immersed as it is passed on by forks or rakes on to a lifting
device. The first tank or bowl is generally used for soaking
purposes as before described. The machine is fed by means of
a rotary apron upon which the wool is piaced evenly and
regularly, so as to prevent any accumulation of lumps or solid
masses in the bowls. The wool is thus conducted to the top
of the apron, when it falls into the soak, and is immediately
pressed under the liquor by a large revolving immerser. The
wool is passed on ^lowly by the aid of the sweeping motion
WOOL-WASHING. 257
of the rakes, with very little injury to the wool or water, until
it is lifted on to the connecting rotary apron, which delivers
it at once to a heavy set of press rollers. As the wool passes
through these rollers the hot liquor is squeezed out
running back into the tank, whilst the half-scoured wool falls
into the second tank of cleaner water. By allowing the soak
liquor to run back into the bowl, the scouring strength or
capacity is increased by the addition of yolk which is squeezed
out by the rollers. By this method there is a great saving of
labour and material, as the liquor can be used over and over,
and there is no necessity for replenishing the soak with soap
for every bale. When the wool to be scoured is fairly clean,
commence by thoroughly dissolving the soap, then put lib.
into the soak, and keep up the temperature, when as many as
i o bales of greasy wool can be most effectually cleansed, fit for
any market, without changing the water. In this manner all
the wool is passed from tank to tank, greatly accelerated by
showers of clean water, each cleansing the wool more
and more. At the end of the fourth tank, as soon as
the wool is passed through the rollers, with the assistance
of a smaller apron, it is received by a fan which opens out
the cleaned wool, making it light and easier to dry. After-
wards this wool should be put evenly into an hydro-extractor,
which, when power is applied, revolves at a high velocity,
removing all the water.
The most perfect up-to-date washing machines are those
in which a sweeping pressure is substituted for forks or rakes.
The manner of soaking and feeding is the same, the soaked
wool falls into a broad long trough, with a copious flow of
water, which has a ready means of escape. As the wool
passes along, large, flat iron weights sweep down simul-
taneously, crushing or squeezing it as it passes along. This
squeezing the wool whilst it is under the water loosens the
dirt far more effectually than other processes, and so it is
more readily rinsed and cleansed.
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
By substituting- weights for forks, the wool is not torn,
made ropy, or lumpy ; on the contrary, every piece is as
large and open as when first put into the
machine. The whole fleece can be thoroughly
cleansed, not a fibre or staple injured,
every part being as perfect as if it had
been just shorn off a well-washed sheep.
Wools presented in this form to the manu-
facturer are in a perfect state, suitable in
every way to his requirements.
HEATING WATER. — In all machine soak
tanks there should be a steam injector
so as to conveniently heat the water, also
FIBRE INJURED BY to keep it at a. regular temperature. It is
TOO HOT WATER.
surprising to see what little consideration
has been given to this most important matter.
It must be remembered that to allow a jet of steam
to come in contact with wool really means its partial
destruction, both in its physical structure and colour. When
soaking wool, it is extremely necessary to keep the water at
the same temperature, so that equal treatment is meted out to
the whole, however large or small it may be. In all machine-
scouring each tank or bowl is fitted with a false bottom, made
of thin iron plates, well perforated, so as to" allow all sediment
to sink to the real bottom, thus preventing the wool from
coming in contact with sand, etc. This false bottom is in
sections and readily removed, and rests upon edges about
six inches from the bottom of the tank. Instead of having
the steam injector above the false bottom, as it usually is, it
should be arranged to come in underneath. By this
arrangement the steam never comes directly in contact with
the wool, as it does when the injector is above the false
bottom. To further improve the heating process, there should
be attached to the steam injector an iron pipe, with six or
more branches or arms, each well perforated, so as to
WOOL-WASHING. 259
distribute the steam well throughout the length and breadth
of the tank. This steam-circulating pipe can be made so as to
allow of its being easily removed by means of a connecting
socket, and can be slightly raised, so as not to rest on the
bottom. When the machine is working, an even temperature
can be easily secured throughout the tank by regulating the
steam. This is the great preventative against any damage
happening to the wool in this department. From my own
personal experience this is by far the best and safest method
of heating water and securing an even temperature for wool-
scouring purposes ; it ensures a regular and even colour
throughout, and protects the fibre.
The success 'of scouring rests mainly on the quality of
the water, which should be fresh, soft, clean, and in plentiful
supply. If the water is hard, as it is in localities of iron and
other mineral formation, caustic soda can be used to great
advantage in softening it by adding zj.lbs. to every thousand
gallons of water before putting in any soap.
SCOURING SOAPS. — There are many different kinds
of soaps used when scouring wools, which, according to the
condition of the wool, must be used in greater or smaller
quantities. The base of yolk is potash, and is soluble in
either hot or cold water ; a sound potash soap will, therefore,
act in unison, to the benefit of the fibre or wool.
Stale urine has been used from the earliest time of
textile manufacture. Although there are many different
scouring agents on the market, all proclaimed to be the best,
yet for safety, as well as perfect cleansing properties, stale
urine holds its own. It can be successfully used in the
proportion of one gallon to five of \vater. If a stronger agent
is required, add a little liquid ammonia.
The best soap for scouring purposes is that made prin-
cipally of ammonia. It has a mild effect upon wool, and can
be used either with hot or cold water, according to the
condition of the wool. In the great textile manufacturing
2()0 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
centres in the North of England, it is almost universally used
for cleaning wool, cotton, or silk in the natural state, and
when made into goods. For removing a heavy, fatty, suety
yolk from wool, it is a pronounced success.
Good average greasy wool can be properly scoured
in soft water at a temperature of 100° F. to i iou F., with
lib. of potash soap, or -Hb. of ammoniac soap to a bale of
wool weighing 3|cwt. to 4cwt. If the liquor and yolk can
be saved by being returned into the soak bowl and the
heat kept up, as many as 10 bales can be put through
without changing. Soak quarter of an hour. A heavy pasty
wool requires more heat and more soap; temperature not less
than 130^ F., with iMb. of strong neutral soap. In this wool
the scouring temperature should not be allowed to diminish,
and, if possible, the rinsing water, or \vater in the second
bowl should be warm. In this class of wool, even with rather
severe treatment, the yolk is not all removed, when, if the
water is cold in the second tank, the sudden change will
prevent the wool from becoming clean. In this instance
the wool has a fatty, clammy or gluey touch. Soak half an
hour.
EARTHY WOOL. — Temperature no"1 F. Soak quarter of
an hour, soaking lib. of soap.
RED SANDY WOOL requires a hot bath up to 130° F.,
with i Mb. of soap per bale, and the soak to be changed every
bale. The red dust destroys the cleansing power of the soap,
and if the soak-tanks are not cleaned out every time a bale
has passed through, the wool has a hard, gritty feel, with a
reddish appearance. Lambs' wool should be treated mildly,
temperature from 90° to 100° F., neutral soap, Ub. per
bale, and soaked from 10 to 15 minutes ; red lambs' wool,
120° F., i|lb. of soap, soaking fully 20 minutes.
RAMS' WOOL. — This is the most difficult of all wools to
scour, and requires special treatment. Generally the yolk is
of a more gluey nature than that found in any other kind of
wool, besides containing a larger proportion of sulphur. This
WOOL-WASHING. 261
adheres to the wool so persistently, that a rigid or severe
treatment has to be adopted to get rid of the yolk, always
leaving a shady or inferior colour. Even when scoured
carefully the wool has a clammy feel. It is most necessary
when scouring rams' wool to use an extra stong liquor, as
much again as is required in an average wool, to which should
be added about 4oz. of caustic soda. The temperature of the
water should be never less than 130°, and often more, and
the wool allowed to remain in the soak not less than 30
minutes. The rinsing waters should not be cold ; the first
should be hot, each after gradually reduced in temperature.
When rams' wool is taken out of the hot soak, and put direct
into cold water, which is generally done, the sulphur and
heavy sticky yolk is fastened in by the extreme and sudden
change, thus leaving a most undesirable appearance and
sappy feel.
DRYING SCOURED WOOL. — There are different methods
of drying wool, more especially in the thickly-populated
countries, when space is a great consideration. This may
also be coupled with the greater uncertainty of climate in the
great manufacturing centres of Europe and America. In
many of the large factories, more especially those used
by commission wool-combers, where there are sometimes as
many as 30 scouring machines employed, each of which will
turn out 20 to 25 bales of wool in a day, the drying must be
done systematically and expeditiously, without any sudden
changes in the temperature. To meet these demands, many
automatic wool-drying machines have been invented, and are
universally used to expedite the work. The first dryer used
was the screen wool-dryer, but this is no longer used, because
the wool required too much handling, making the operation
expensive. The automatic, continuous wool-dryer is chiefly
in use, when the wool, after being scoured, is passed through
different hot-air compartments, each differing in temperature,
to hasten the drying. When the wool has passed through
the dryer, it is impregnated with hot air, and to do the wool
262 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AXD WOOL.
full justice it should be taken out on to the green for about an
hour and spread out thick in the open air ; by this treatment
it would lose its unnatural heat and have a more lively
appearance. When the hot-air dryer is not used, the wool
needs to be spread out on the green or drying flat, on sheets,
for about three hours, according to the state of the weather.
The wool will require to be turned, so that all parts receive
uniform treatment. It is not necessary for wool to be dried
thoroughly, and can be gathered a little damp to advantage.
Wool is a great regulator ; if thrown into a large stack
from the drying ground and allowed to remain not less than
24 hours, more if possible, any sappy lumps, or dog heads,
as they are called, will dry out, the drier wool absorbing the
moisture. There is a great advantage in allowing scoured wool
to remain in a large stack, for, as the unnatural heat escapes,
nature in the shape of yolk returns, gradually imparting a kind,
soft touch, together with a healthy, natural smell, which is
a great consideration in scoured wool. After 24 hours in the
stack, the wool is ready to press and fit for any market.
Usually wool is pressed straight from the driers or drying
green, which, in the interests of the trade, is not desirable.
In connection with the wool trade generally, whether on a
station or elsewhere, there is a great tendency to wastefulness,
but nowhere more so than in many of the scouring works.
In England and America, for over 50 years, through keen
competition, they have been forced to utilise all bye products
in all trades, and especially those connected with woollen
factories, where the saving of yolk receives special attention.
Instead of allowing this valuable fat to run down the drain, it
is made into a useful commercial commodity called lanoline,
which is highly valued for its chemical properties. It is used
in the high-class grades of toilet soaps ; it is also suitable for
forming the base of one of the wool-scouring soaps — potash
soap.
WOOL-WASHING..
In our own wool-scouring" industry, the idea of saving
yolk seems to be neglected ; tons from single establishments
are allowed to run to waste, the only idea being to get rid of
it, and in the quickest possible time. When we consider
that the average shrinkage in scouring throughout the whole
of Australia is 50 per cent., its total loss appears to indicate a
lack of enterprise somewhere. If a great outlay were
necessary in its conservation, there would be some excuse
for letting it run to waste ; but the outlay is small, especially
when machinery is used for scouring. If a few long canvas
troughs, or filtering beds, were placed under the level of
the tank, so that the water from the soak only would run
into them, the water would drain off, leaving the yolk
floating, or, by changing the conducting troughs from one
filtering bed to the other, yolk of the tank can be thus
saved. About half of the 50 per cent, of shrinkage
consists of sand, the other half being yolk ; so that from every
roolbs. of wool, about 25lbs. of yolk may be obtained.
WOOL SCOURING WITH ARTESIAN BORE WATER.—
The use of artesian water for wool-scouring has, during the
last few years replaced the ordinary river or creek water in
the back country to a great extent, and a decided improve-
ment is noticeable in the work done. Bore water is un-
doubtedly of even quality in any particular bore, therefore,
the wool during scouring is not subjected to any change
•caused by flood, or water becoming stagnated. It is not
necessary here to recapitulate what has been mentioned in
ordinary methods in large scouring works, as the bore water
can be used in exactly the same way to a greater advantage,
and, if skilfully handled, no better water exists for the
purpose.
The temperature of a great many supplies is admirably
adapted for scouring the medium qualities of merino wool,
without further expense being required for the heating of the
water. Should the water be too hot upon leaving the bore, it
can quickly and easily be reduced by exposure to the air until
264 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
a correct temperature is obtained for the rinsing process. The
wool should pass rapidly through the water, and, to get the
best results, should be immediately put through a steam-
driven hydro-extractor after rinsing, which takes 70 per cent,
to 80 per cent, of the water away from the wool, and no
unevenness of colour results through the wool being allowed
to drain. A cheap and useful plan of arranging a scour with
ordinary boxes or crates is by excavating a trench about
6ft. deep, and fixing the boxes so that a copious flow of water
passes distinctly through the box, sufficient space being left
underneath to allow sand or sediment to escape.
Hand-washing is preferable to pot-sticking, the wool
not being so liable to become roped. To carry out hand-
washing, a cask, large enough for a man to stand in
comfortably, can be sunk alongside the box to within about
6 inches of the water level ; the washer can then handle the
wool comfortably, will be perfectly dry, and can prevent the
slightest approach to roping.
Wools turned out by a plant of this description can be
compared most favourably with any scouring done by the
latest improved modern machinery, a splendid colour being
obtained, a sufficiency of nature or condition being left in
to impart to the wool a nice, kind, delicate handle.
CLEANSING WOOL.
Heretofore manufacturers have contented themselves
with simply securing the fibre cleansed from all impurities,
without any thought being given to the valuable properties
that are contained in the yolk. Though this latter has long
been recognised as being of great importance for commercial
and pharmaceutical purposes, its several parts have not been
utilised to any great extent, because- the methods for its
collection and separation involved too great an expense,
though efforts have been made to bring this on to a profitable
basis for the last forty years, at least during that time
WOOL-WASHING. 2()5
mechanical devices have been invented for cleansing wool
with volatile liquids of the hydro-carbon class. There are
important desiderata to be considered in freeing wool from its
impurities. The scouring process should be as mild as it is
possible to make it for the efficient removal of the grease.
In order to do this there are only two known methods — the
emulsion and the solvent. The former has usually been
employed in connection with an alkali, such as soda ash, the
fatty matter in the wool forming an emulsion with an alkaline
solution. This process has been in long use, and is familiar
to every manufacturer, the only advantage of which is its
cheapness and safety from fire. Its disadvantages are numerous
and have been frequently pointed out to those using it as
liable to cause great injury to the fibre by seriously impairing
its physical structure. So subtle, however, has been the
destructive action of the alkali upon the fibre that it has
remained unobserved, except when subjected to examination
under a microscope. The detrimental effect of the alkali is
double if used at a high temperature, which is very
apt to be the cdSfe when the operation of scouring is
placed in the hands of ignorant persons, as is usually
done. Caustic alkalies^ such as are used for scouring
wool, cannot be used effectively, except in a solution
at a high temperature, and then the action can readily become
so intense as to completely dissolve the wool. Not unfrequently
this is carried to such a degree that partial dissolution does
take place. The temperature of the alkaline soap bath used
in scouring wool should never exceed nodeg. of heat, if
all the valuable properties of the fibre, especially the lustre,
are to be preserved. Now, it is known to be a jja,ct that
the temperature is more often than not used in excess of this.
The essential qualities of the wool fibre to the manufac-
turer are its softness, strength, lustre, and elasticity. All
these are really detrimentally affected to a greater or less
extent by the use of caustic potash or soda, or any alkaline
solution, though the injury may not be perceptible. On the
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
other hand, they are not affected, but preserved by the
hydro-carbon, or volatile liquid process, which also leaves
the fibre unimpaired as to its felting properties, simply
because its physical structure is not changed. The difficulty,
heretofore experienced, in the practical working of any
plan for the utilisation of hydro-carbons for cleaning-
wool, has been because of mechanical inefficiency of
method. It is a well-known fact, however, that wool
cleansed by hydro-carbons, works with considerably less
waste, and can be spun into finer counts than when
cleansed with soap and water. Quite a number of inventions
have appeared in recent years for overcoming the difficulties
.attending the use of volatile liquids for cleansing wool, but
none of them have proved successful to our knowledge, unless
it be the one to which we shall specially refer, as the inven-
tion of John T. Morse. Even in the late publication of
Knecht, Rawson, and Lo\venthal, reference is made to the
numerous attempts towards the cleansing of wool by a volatile
.solvent. These, although theoretically ^ving good results,
not only with regard to the washi.^fcut also to the complete
recovery of the by-products, have ^Rn found to answer well
only on a small scale. " On a larger scale, practical difficul-
culties have always shown themselves, in consequence of
which none of the methods has hith'erto been able to hold its
own against the old process of washing with soap." From
our personal investigation of the Morse process, we have no
hesitation in saying that the main difficulties in the use of
volatile solvents have been overcome to a sufficient extent to
make it commercially successful for the cleansing of wool,
and for the separation of the by-products for economical
utilisation. The great drawback in the use of the solvent
process, heretofore, has been the danger from fire or explosion.
This danger has been removed, and the process is the
cheapest and the best that can possibly be devised, so far as
chemistry has enabled us to see.
WOOL-WASHING. 2()7
In the Morse process, if properly carried out, this danger
has been, we are satisfied, wholly eliminated. We desire to
impress upon our readers that by the use of the hydro-carbon,
or solvent process, no deleterious effect on the fibre need
be feared. The fibre cannot, by any conceivable means,
become impaired through any carelessness on the part of the
ignorant workmen, and the manufacturer, therefore, has his
wool given to him in a condition as perfect as the nature of
the fibre will permit. With these conditions, it is readily
seen that a fabric can be produced that is susceptible of a
finish with all the natural characteristics of the wool pre-
served. The manufacturer will obtain, by using wool that
is thus cleaned, less waste, greater fineness and strength of
yarn, no loss in the natural lustre of the fibre, greater purity
of colours, greater suppleness, or, in other words, a more
perfect production. All the advantages above referred to
in the use of hydro-carbons for cleaning wool we believe are
secured in the process for treating wool which \ve have
been privileged to carefully examine in practical operation,
as carried out by the Morse Wool Treating Company, of
Norton (Mass.). By this process wool can be treated in the
open state, or in the original package, as may be most
desired. So thoroughly and cheaply is this done for manu-
facturers, that it is a question whether the latter can find it to
their advantage to cleanse their wool themselves. By the
Morse process, the wool is conducted into what is termed a
treating cylinder, into which is introduced a refined hydro-
carbon solvent, filling the cylinder, after a vacuum has been
created, thoroughly penetrating the mass of wool, and
extracting all its wool grease. The removal of the air from
the cylinder eliminates all possible danger of fire or explosion.
The vacuum also enables the solvent to perform its functions
more effectively. While in the cylinder, the solvent is sub-
jected to a cold expansion process of great efficiency, for the
purpose of permeating every part of the wool mass, no matter
how7 compact it maybe, whether baled in the original package
2()8 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
or otherwise. After the solvent has performed its functions,
it is drawn from the cylinder, carrying with it the wool grease
to separating stills, where it is vapourised and afterwards
condensed, and delivered back to its original starting point.
All foreign matter, including wool grease, obtained from the
wool, is collected and separated, and the grease barrelled for
shipment, to be afterwards manipulated for pharmaceutical
and other purposes. After the wool has been treated with
the solvent, it is removed from the cylinder and passed
through a deodorising process, where it is subjected to a
treatment of steam combined with air, blown through it
sufficiently to break the steam. This leaves the wool in a
remarkably sweet condition, and in this shape it can be shipped
to the manufacturer who sent it, to be afterwards washed ; or
the Morse Wool Treating Company will perform all this
operation, if desired. If the wool, however, has been treated
in the original package, and it is expected to be returned in
that form, the deodorising process will have to be done at the
mill where the wool is used. This process can be effected
with inexpensive machinery, that hardly need be taken into
consideration, so far as its cost is concerned, by the manu-
facturer.— Textile Recorder.
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN FELLMONGERY.
FELLMONGER. — One who deals in skins.
WOOL-PULLER. — A man who takes the wool off the sheep
skins, after they have been sweated or limed.
STATION SKINS. — Are the skins taken off sheep on
stations, and afterwards dried, in which state they are sent
to the market.
GREEN SKINS. — The skins of sheep which have been
recently slaughtered, or fresh skins.
PELT. — A name given to the skin after the wool ha
been pulled, or taken off.
:
WOOL-WASHING.
PELT WOOL. — The name given to wool taken off the
skin covered with about two months' growth. A very short
skin wool.
&LIPE. — The name given to pulled wool which has been
dried and not scoured.
SKIN WOOL. — A term used to imply that the pulled wool
has been scoured, to distinguish it from slipe, or unsecured
skin wool.
PLUCKED WOOL. — Wool plucked from a sheep which
has been dead a few days.
FALLEN, OR DEAD WOOL. — The wool taken off the
remains of a sheep which has been dead a considerable time.
PIE PIECES. — Are the trimmings or loose ends cut or
clipped off by the puller. Remnants of skins.
PIE WOOL. — The wool picked off the pie pieces.
FELLMONGERING. — This is a separate branch of the wool
industry, and relates entirely to the handling of sheep skins,
the main object being to divest the skins of their wool, leaving
the pelt uninjured and the wool in its natural state. There
are various methods by which this work is performed, none
of which is completely satisfactory. The old system of
the lime treatment left the pelt a rather difficult article to deal
with in order to get out of it its real value. The lime had too
hardening an effect, taking out much of the pliability and
•softness. Likewise with the wool, the lime treatment
impregnated it with that mineral, destroying to a very great
extent the valuable wool properties, rendering it unfit for use
in the making of even a second-rate class of fabrics. The
lime acts severely upon the delicate structure of the fibre, so
that when passing through the different delicate machines,
being devoid of pliability, it is easily broken, and continually
wasting away. Fellmongering, as generally conducted at the
present date, is a decided improvement upon the lime system,
as, with a little carefulness, the pelt can be well preserved,
-as well as the wool, and both made suitable to the
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
requirements of the trade, as well as the cloth manufacturers.
There are two kinds of skin continually coming into the
market. Those from the station, having- been dried and
kept for some time ; and others, the green, coming straight
from the butcher. These two classes of skin require different
treatment. The latter, being soft, fresh, or green, are more
speedily manipulated ; whilst the former must undergo a
softening process. Therefore, the two classes cannot be
worked together. Careful fellmongering firms will have the
skins classed, according to length and quality, long, short,
and crossbreds. Sometimes there is a minute classification.
Full wools, ^, 9 months' growth ; ^, 6 months ; and ^4, 3
months1 growth, besides pelts or newly-shorn skins. The
station skins are thrown into the soak from 36 to 48 hours, se-
as to soften the pelt thoroughly. When bore water is available,
skin will soften in about 12 hours and be ready for the
sweating-room. Skins require to drain after being taken out
of the soak pits for about four hours, after which they are
hung apart in the sweating-house. This sweat-house is
generally built of brick, about 6ft. high, with a few openings,
and these have shutters, so as to regulate the heat. On the
inside of the roof are long timber fixtures, with tenter hooks
driven in about 6 inches apart. Each skin is taken separately
by the back part of the neck, just behind the poll, and hung
on to a hook until all the lots are softened. The skin on
the upper part and centre of the neck is much thicker than
on any other part, making a stronger and more secure hole
for bearing the weight of a wet, woolly skin. The sweat-
house is then closed, and gradually a moist heat arises,
eventually forming a strong, steamy atmosphere, which
softens the pelt and loosens the wool ; at this juncture rests
the success or failure of the work. If a pelt is sweatee
too much it becomes more of a glutinous mass, and wil
actually run the same as warm glue or gum, rendering it
useless for the tanner, and the wool is also greatly damaged
WOOL-WASHING. '
In fact, the pelt and the wool can scarcely be separated.
However, when there is a full sweat-house of skins those in
charge are constantly on the qui vive, and before the wool
begins to loosen the skins are taken down to the pullers,
who take off the wool as described in station fellmongering.
NEW PROCESS OF WOOL-PULLING.
Some two years ago there was an article in the Bradford
Observer •, the great wool authority, stating that a new process,
of wool-pulling, or taking the wool from the sheepskins,
had been invented by Mrs. S. L. Johnson. The process was
so practical, easy, and expeditious, that the venture was taken
up by a Yorkshire syndicate. As further showing its
merits, most of the large fellmongers, tanners, together with
that important body, the wool-combers, all being convinced
of its genuineness, heartily gave their support as an
acknowledgment of the importance of the invention. The
invention consists of an electric knife, with which the wool can
be cut off the skin in one piece, and can be afterwards rolled
into a fleece. Under this electrical operation neither the wool
nor the pelt is injured, but both are fit to be placed on any
market. The knife is shaped something after the style of the
machine shears or clippers, with the usual flexible cable,,
through which the electric current is conducted. Connected
to this is a small shovel-like head, composed of a thin sheet
of metal amalgam, which, under the electric influence,
develops into a bright red heat. The operation of removing
the wool is simply to push the knife close along the surface
of the pelt, when the wool is rolled off, fast or slow, according
to the ability of the puller. The actual operation in taking
off the wool is so rapid that there is no trace of injury to
either the pelt or the wool.
Whilst doing; the work so effectually, the difference
o J *
between the cost of the present pulling method and this new
invention is greatly in favour of the latter, so much so that it
is quite evident that there will be a revolution in the
272 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
fellmongering yards. It is claimed that a boy or a girl, with
half a day's practice, will be able to strip the wool off more
than eight dozen skins in the eight hours. As regards the wool
alone, there is no danger of its being injured, as there is in
the sweating1 and liming processes, under which it frequently
happens that it loses its colour. The pelts are also in a
much sounder state through not having been subjected to the
sweat-house or the rough use of the fleshing knife. The use
of this invention is essentially to the advantage of these
colonies, where great quantities of skins are put through
weekly, and would be the means of raising our reputation for
leather production, which is not at a high standard at
present.
FELLMONGERING ON STATIONS.
This work on stations is frequently carried on under most
difficult circumstances, and it is surprising to see how creditably
it is performed in most cases. Even if there is not a good
soaking place, or a sweating-house, there is much real good
work done wrhen there are good sheepskins to handle. Prior
to soaking the skins, they should be classed into long and
short, so as to get a regular sweat, and care should be taken
to have the feet, and even the face, skin and ears cut off, as
these contract heat much sooner than any other parts, being
composed of small sinews and bones, &c. When these
objectionable parts are allowed to remain on the skin when
put in the sweating heap, if there is any mis-timing, they will
become black, and any part of the skin coming in contact
with them becomes black also, thus causing the wool to have
a bad colour, also even damaging the texture, making the
whole of little value. After the classification of the skins,
they are put into soak, but as the rivers are not avail-
able under the new regulations, a shallow water-hole, or
billy-bong is the most convenient. The skins are thrown in
promiscuously, but it is necessary to have the flesh or pelt
side down, when they gradually sink, so that every particle
WOOL-WASHING. 273
of the skin is thoroughly soaked. After the skins have been
in the water for a day or two, according as they feel hard or
soft, they can be taken out and put to drain for about twelve
hours. A clean, tidy fellmonger will have, by the time the
skins are drained, a space cleared of all grass and rubbish, on
which to place the skins for sweating, i.e., if there is not a
sweating-shed or room. The skins may now be placed on
the ground, which is properly done by taking hold of each
separately by the centre of the back, so that the skirts and
points, being the most difficult to sweat, will come
undermost, where they attract the heat sooner than the outside
parts. By placing, say, a hundred skins side by side, a most
convenient stack will be made. More skins can be put
on this bottom layer, so as to form a heap. This should
now be covered up very carefully with any old bags or sheets,
so as to prevent any cold air from penetrating into the heap,
and at the same time keeping in the hot air. If the weather
is at all cold they should not be disturbed for fully two nights
and a day, probably a little longer, when their positions
require reversing. In muggy and warm seasons, the skins
should be turned or reversed after sweating from 16 to 20
hours, according to circumstances. A clean place is now
required, all herbage removed, and well swept, and afterwards
covered with anything handy — boards, old boxes, or old
sheeting, on which to throw the wool, and to keep it clean
when pulled or stripped off the skins. Anything in the shape
of an old board, better still, a log, will suffice for a pulling
beam, when placed in a sloping position on the edge of the
cleared space.
The sweated skins from the stack can now be tried to see
if the wool will leave readily, at the same time great care
should be exercised, so as not to allow any cold air to get in,
as they are much more difficult to pull if they become cold.
The skin is now placed upon the beam lengthwise, with the
head or neck at the raised end nearest the operator, who, with
his hands, or more generally with a two-handled knife, the
274 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
wool is pushed, or pulled, to use the trade phrase, from the
back first, then sides and shoulders, always keeping- away from
the edges. All the wool thus removed is put into a separate
sort, and called " first" combing", if treating- the longer-
woolled skins. If the short wools are under operation, they
will also be called "first," with the distinguishing brand of
clothing. The edges of the skin are now brought into
convenient position on the beam, when the largest patches of
wool are removed and put into another sort called "seconds."
Following on the short, bitty, inferior trimmings are made
into " thirds," which can be further improved by keeping out
the stained.
When a good many skins are in hand great care should
be exercised, so as not to let the pulled wool remain in heaps, as
the wool, being wet, will soon heat. If the wool is not to be
scoured directly, it must be spread out to dry thoroughly,
after which it may remain in heaps, or can be pressed at
convenience. When the skins are in quantity, it is safest to
pull all before scouring.
SHEEPSKINS.
Sheepskins upon most stations, selections, and farms
receive very bad treatment, not the least attention being paid
when skinning the sheep, while, after they are taken off,
little or no notice is taken as to the best mode for their
preservation. Like many other products, skins, if not cared
for, will perish and become valueless ; on the contrary, if
proper attention is given them they will become a good
source of revenue. The accumulation of skins is, in
most instances, very slow, and they have to be stOAved away
until opportunities present themselves, either to fellmonger
them or send them whole to the sales.
In my travels throughout different colonies I find that,
as a rule, there is a tendency to ignore this small branch
of the staple trade, and to those who do not know how to go
WOOL-WASHING. 275
about this part of their business, it is hoped that the following
notes will be of use : —
PREPARING SHEEPSKINS FOR MARKET. — The killing of
ration sheep is looked upon as a piece of drudgery in
connection with station work, and, consequently, there is
very little interest taken in it. As a rule it is thought not
to matter how the work is done, well or indifferently, so long
as the sheep is killed. If we compare the time it takes to
remove the skin badly, it will be found that it takes much
longer than if it were done well. First, a careful method
should be adopted.
The work of successful slaughtering and fellmongery
depends entirely on the first stages of killing, because, if the
skins are not opened out correctly on the legs and under parts
of the sheep, it is not possible to take them off properly with-
out using the knife, or without having large junks of fat and
flesh attached to the pelt. By carefully noting the proper
seam, i.e., between the outer skin of the flesh and the pelt, the
work is made easy by opening with the knife, thus easing the
pelt a little all along the belly, legs, and neck, after which the
hand will move speedily, and more effectually remove the
skin than the knife. By this practice the sheep is properly
skinned, the carcass is intact and presentable, whilst, if there
is any neglect shown in the initiatory process, it will leave
the body unsightly by leaving pieces of flesh and fat pulled
and torn off. The skin presents an unsightly appearance,
and the lumps of fat and flesh being very prominent, will
certainly not assist in its preservation or enhance its value.
It will be found that the hand does the greater part of the
work, both more certainly and faster than the knife, the latter
only being required about the legs, belly, and neck. If the
sheep is not skinned properly, it makes the carcass an
unsightly object, reduces its value, and also prevents the skin
from giving the best results with regard to wool and pelt.
Many station slaughtermen are very much surprised when
they find that the skin does not come or run off easily, but if
27() AUSTRALIAN SHKEP AND WOOL.
they would take their time and use a little care at the starting-
point, they would soon find out where the mistake originated.
A man begins skinning a sheep at the knee of the fore leg-
down the throat, and at these particular parts the real trouble
commences. The hind leg also gives just as much trouble if
pains are not taken. At these parts the outward part of the
flesh is covered with a little fat, and being of the same colour
as the pelt, it often occurs, that much of this fat adheres to the
skin, and as it is pulled by the operator, he gradually gets
under this fatty part, and cannot readily get into the proper
seam. At this stage the operator generally loses his temper,
pulls and jerks, and the skin is decorated with pieces of fat
and flesh, is torn, and is altogether a much-damaged article.
Cutting the pelt also often happens through want of care, and
ought to be avoided as much as possible, as every cut means
a few pence off the value ; the damage so done makes the skin
unfit for use for the best purposes. After the skin is off, it
should be laid out straight, without any stretching, just to its
natural shape. This should be done upon a board and not
upon the ground, and under cover from the sun.
After it is set, which only takes two or three hours, it
should be painted with a mixture of the following descrip-
tion : — lib. of common soda and 2^1bs. of arsenic to 3^
gallons of water ; boil gently for 4 hours, stirring frequently,
and be certain the arsenic is properly and thoroughly
dissolved. When using the liquid take one pint and add
three pints of water, wrhich will be sufficient for 350 skins.
The skins may now be painted, and great care should be
taken not to miss the edges, and especially the neck. They
are now ready for hanging, so as to thoroughly dry both
pelt and wool. This may be done by fixing three saplings,
ropes, or wires, one on top and one on each side a little
lower, so as to make the latter to act as spreaders. By fixing
the three ropes or wires in this triangular shape, and placing
the skins thereon, the wrind gets to the under part as well as the
upper, and the painted skin should be hung lengthwise on the
WOOL-WASHING. '277
wires from the neck to the tail, with the woolly side below. If
hung across, the back being much longer and heavier, there
is a great tendency to stretch and damage the skin where it
rests on the top wire. When they are well dried> examine
thoroughly to see if any part has been missed in painting, as
the smallest bit not touched with the liquid will commence to
breed weevils, which are destroyers of skins, and if not kept
down will render the skin worthless. After a few days'
hanging the skins may be placed or stacked in the shed. If
kept dry they will keep for twelve months, if required.
If these precautions are taken, they will be eagerly
bought at the highest prices, and any extra trouble spent
on them will be amply repaid.
On the other side, we will just look at the case of a skin
which has been roughly handled when taken off ; and this is
too frequently seen upon stations. In the first place, it
realises only half its value, and, in the next place, if kept
on the station, it is thrown about anywhere, no attention
being paid to it, and gradually becomes an object more
suitable for a rubbish heap than the sale-room. After all this
carelessness, the manager sometimes asks, with wonder :
" How is it that the skins or skin wool realise such poor
prices?" The skins only require proper treatment, like
everything else ; then there will be no blaming the brokers
for not getting prices, or the fellmonger for not getting a
better colour in the wool when scoured. To give an idea of
the value of a skin, a look at its structure is instructive, and
should convince all that it is wrorthy of consideration.
There are three parts which form the skin — the external
part, called the cuticle, which is thin, tough, and devoid of any
feeling, and pierced with innumerable pores, through which
pass the fibres of the wool. It has a scaly texture, and when
dry and brushed like a piece of cloth, much dry dust flies off.
These are scales, and the whole of the upper part or surface
of the skin is composed of these. Below this there is a soft
structure, called rete mucosum, which is with great difficulty
separated from the skin beneath.
278 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
It is in this part where all the nerves of the skin and
blood-vessels are situated. The colour of the skin and
wool depends upon this section, as they are of the same
colour as this substance. Beneath is the lowest layer, and is
called "cutis,"or main skin. It is composed of innumerable
minute fibres crossing in all directions ; they are very elastic,
so as to yield to the motions of the body. These three parts
together form the whole skin, and are composed almost entirely
of gelatine, and can be dissolved by boiling or sweating. The
uses of the good pelts are worthy of note, and it is interesting
to know what useful and durable goods they are converted
into. The most valuable use is for making parchment, noted
for its durable nature. They are also used for bookbinding,
making gloves, and other fancy, light and tough goods.
Machinery has done much to enhance the value of the
pelts, by aid of which sound pelts can be split or cut
into three parts. However difficult the splitting process
appears, it is done both expeditiously and accurately. The
pelt is fixed securely upon a frame, two knives are now
adjusted evenly, so that each makes a parting, then they are
set in motion, and the pelt is so evenly divided that the
different portions appear to have been the covering of
three sheep instead of one.
These particulars will at once convince many that by
carefully preserving and protecting their sheepskins, they not
only benefit themselves, but mankind generally.
We will now look at neglected skins, which, in the first
instance, cannot possibly be used for the purposes above
mentioned. The pelt, when cut, is almost useless, and fit
only for making into glue pieces, worth from £2 10. to £3
per ton, so that, even in most convenient places, they will not
more than pay wages for handling. The wool from these
damaged skins is mostly of an inferior kind, from having to
be pied down, a process which destroys the character and
colour of the wool. Instead of being worth i8d. to
WOOL-WASHING. 279
per lb., it is only worth from 5d. to 8d. per lb., and causes
much more labour when in pieces than in the whole skin.
PACKING SKINS FOR MARKET. — Prices obtained for
sheepskins depend a great deal on the growth of the wool,
and the state in which they are placed before the buyers.
However long the wool might be, if the pelt is not intact,
sound, and well preserved, the value is greatly reduced. The
skin trade does not now rest with local fellmongers as
formerly, since a formidable competition now presents itself in
the export trade, for which extreme prices are paid for any
sound lots ; and it is most necessary that the wants of this
particular branch should be consulted. The same care
should be taken of skins as if they were intended to be kept
for station fellmongery at some distant date ; the only
additional work would be packing for the market, and
systematic handling will give great assistance to the brokers
in showing them to the best advantage.
It is necessary that all skins should be perfectly dried, or
they will taint and become damaged ; they should be classed
into long and short, because there is a great risk of not
getting full value when all are put into one lot, for the average
has to be taken. The valuation is then made upon the
shortest, the same as in valuing mixed wool, and the price
is fixed according to the " low." Careful and clean packing is
most essential, so that, when the broker weighs them in, his
weights will compare favourably with the delivery note. This
will give satisfaction, and will probably prevent unpleasant
correspondence. Skins should be doubled, wool side out,
feet cut off, and well protected with boards before they are
wired or fastened, as the friction caused in carriage often
causes weak places, doing much damage. These may appear
only small matters, but if properly attended to they will assist
greatly to meet the working expenses of the station ; whereas
if not looked to, this certain revenue will be lost.
280 AUSTRALIAN* SHEEP AND WOOL.
MANUFACTURING.
FELTING PROPERTY.
FELTING property is the capability of some wools,
through the agency of their elasticity, crimps and
serrations, to interlock or entangle, forming a felted tissue
or cloth. The felting property is found, more or less, in
all wools, and several kinds of hair, such as llama, rabbit,
cashmere, and mohair, and is not found in any other fibre,
either silk or vegetable. As a general rule, that wool having
the greatest number of crimps in a given space, together with
flexibility, is best adapted for felting purposes, and on
these qualities, and according to their high or low character,
depends the felting property of the wool. The prime factors
in the felting are the serrations or scales on the exterior of
the fibre, and upon their formation and quantity rests
the foundation of felting power. A high-class felting wool,
one of the superior clothing type, is usually not more than
two inches long, sometimes shorter, and possesses all the
high wool characteristics thoroughly developed. The
diameter of the fibre will be down to ^^o of an inch ; there
will be over 30 crimps or curves to the inch, which will
be truly placed throughout the whole length of the fibre. In
a numerously-crimped wool are generally found the most
serrations, and it is a common saying — more crimps, more
serrations. (See page 142.)
MANUFACTURING. 281
SERRATIONS.
SERRATIONS — Are the scaly, notched or saw-like edges
found on the wool fibre. These scales are of very minute
formation, and can only be seen by the aid of a powerful
microscope. Generally speaking, even among wool experts,
the term serrations is used wrongly, and we, in a majority of
cases, hear the exclamation* " How beautiful," or " How
well this wool is serrated," when the wool in question shows
a distinctly crimpy formation. The difference is great ; the
crimps are easily distinguishable without the aid of a
microscope, whilst the serrations are so minute that it is
an impossibility to see them without. These serrations in a
high-class wool have for two-thirds a free margin, whilst
the one-third is attached to the fibre. The free margins vary
much in different classes of wool, the coarser it is, the less the
free margin, until they appear like a slight notch, when the
felting property is almost nil. This wool is becoming closely
allied to hair. The bases of serrations are attached to the
main stem, whilst the free edges point towards the top. This
can be easily ascertained by taking a staple by the tip and
drawing it gently between the thumb and finger ; there will
be found a comparatively rough feeling, caused by coming in
contact with the edges of the serrations. Take the staple
vice versa, by the bottom, and draw it towards the tip, when
there will be a smooth touch, and it will slip through easily,
the result of drawing in the same direction in which the
serrations are placed, and not against them.
It is a peculiarity in wool that the smaller the diameter of
the fibres the more numerous are these serrations, and, with
the aid of an ordinary microscope, you may count up to 3000 in
an inch of fibre, and latterly, with the aid of greatly
improved instruments, 6000 and over are found in one class of
wool, whilst American authorities claim to have discovered
up to 24,000 to the inch, each serration being found to have
other minute points or horns, thus explaining the vastly
increased number. In a pure Lincoln wool the average
number of serrations is about 650 to the inch.
282 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
TEASING.
After the three initiatory processes of sorting, scouring,
and drying, then commences the real manufacturing processes
for transforming wool into fabrics. In the course of manipu-
lation for the woollen and clothing process there is a wide
difference when contrasted with the methods adopted for
making the longer or combing wools into so many varied
classes of textile cloths. After the wool is dried, it is in a
more or less mixed, entangled, or knotted state, and it is
necessary that it should be opened out or teased, which is
done by the aid of a machine made specially for that purpose.
This machine is called a "Willow" or "Teaser," which
consists of a large drum, with three smaller ones mounted in
a covered frame. The large drum is covered with rows of
powerful, slightly bent steel teeth, and is made to rotate
rapidly. The smaller drums or cylinders, called " Workers"
are also provided with rows of steel teeth, which are placed
over the larger drum, working in an opposite direction. By
this action the workers clear all the wool off the larger drum,
thus opening, loosening, or teasing it at the same time,
when it is thrown into a large stack in a light, open,
feathery state.
BURRING.
Some wools contain burrs and moits, which have to be
taken out before it is passed on to the more delicate spinning
frames. There are two processses of freeing wool from this
objectionable vegetable matter, one by the burring machine,
and the other by carbonizing, the former constructed much
after the plan of the willowing machine. The burring
machine consists of a large cylinder called a "Swift" (which
rotates at a high velocity), which is covered \vith short spikes
turned in the direction in which it rotates, and as the wool is
passed on to the spiked drum, it undergoes a beating process,
so as, to a great extent, to crush the burrs. As the machine
receives the wool, the burrs, being heavier, hang out from the
MANUFACTURING. 283
spiked drum, and as it rotates it is met by three burring
rollers in an opposite direction, when the hanging burrs come
in contact with projecting rails, and are knocked out of the
wool. The burrs with a little wool find their way on to a
grating, when they are thrown off and pass through a similar
process a second time.
Another method, viz., the carbonizing process, is often
resorted to, to destroy all the vegetable matter. This
process does not improve the texture of the wool, but leaves
it a little unkind and harsh. The treatment is to steep the
moity wool in a weak bath of sulphuric acid for some time,
when the chemical, together with the high heat, acts upon
the vegetable matter ; thus it is completely carbonized.
Afterwards the wool is put through a bath of chloride of
aluminium, so as to, as far as possible, restore it to its
natural state, and counteract any damage done by the
sulphuric acid.
OILING.
After the foregoing preliminary operations of manufac-
turing, which leaves the wool in a clean but dry state, it has
to undergo an oiling process. This oiling is most necessary,
as it would be very difficult for the hard dry wool to pass
through the delicate drawing and spinning machinery without
the assistance of oil. In the woollen manufacture, Gallipoli
oil is used to the greatest advantage, and is more used in the
woollen than in the worsted trade. The advantage of using
oil is that it holds together the short fine fibres, thus assisting
the drawing and spinning operations, and at the same time
prevents loss of material.
BLENDING.
The next stage of manufacturing the raw material into
cloths is blending. This blending is necessary, so as to obtain
a uniform colour and quality to spin and weave into the
numerous kinds of wearing material. Generally, the wool is
284 AUSTRALIAN SHEET3 AND WOOL.
dyed into different colours, and by adding more or less of such
colours as are necessary the exact shade can be obtained.
Blending is done by placing in layers the required amount of
dyed wool and spreading it out evenly. The same is repeated
with wools of other colours, until all the different lots are in one
large pile or stack. The operator then commences at one side
or face of the stack, pulling out the wool evenly from bottom
to top, giving it a good shake at the same time. This shaking
partially mixed the wool when it is put into a teasing machine,
and as it passes through, the blending is so thorough that
the whole is of a very uniform appearance.
Blending is most frequently an operation for the special
process of adulteration, and wool on many occasions is mixed
with shoddy, mungo, or extract of wool, so as to make a cheap
class of goods. Cotton, and even silk, are also very frequently
used to blend with wool.
CARDING.
While disentangling the locks or staples of wool
and the felted meshes of the filaments, which may be
readily changed into a weavable thread, the amount of
dislocation and blending which the fibres are subject to
in their passage through an ordinary scribbler, is almost
incredible, and it may be understood by considering the
immense multitude of points which are incessantly operating
on the wool. A machine, similar to that represented, contains
65,000,0x30 teeth. They have various functions to perform—
50,000,000 are engaged in the material, disentangling, and
conveying it from stage to stage, resisting in so doing the
action of the teeth of adjacent cylinders, which may become
charged with fibres. The remaining 15,000,000 are designated
extractors or fingers. These last draw the wool from between
MANUFACTURING. 285
the carders of other rollers. In a scribbler, mounted in this
manner, the material is continually separated and acted upon,
being divided and re-mixed by the 15,000,000 points, and this
is not all. A set of carding machines contains two or three
engines, whilst rollers all covered with card clothing of
increasing fineness, so that by the time the wool escapes from
this process a complete disturbance of the natural order of the
fibre has been effected, and they have, moreover, been adjusted
with such mechanical precision as to be readily convertible
into spun yarn.
CONDENSING.
When the carded wool leaves the carding machine in the
form of a sliver or ribbon of wool, it is condensed or divided
into smaller strips. Afterwards these smaller strips are con-
densed into rounded slivers, just sufficiently twisted and
compact to enable them to be wound on to a large metal
bobbin. The condenser consists of rings of card-cloth, the
same width as the strips are to be made, and placed on the
drums, when the rings, as they come in contact with the
stripper, take off a part of the sliver. These narrow strips,
as they are passed out by two oscillating rubbers, which
form the condensed sliver into a rounded but loose untwisted
wool, are really the first operation of spinning into yarn.
SPINNING.
There are several methods of spinning, the mule-frame
being the most used for spinning woollen yarns. This
frame consists of a stationary part on which are placed the
bobbins of condensed sliver or strips ; there is also a travel-
ling carriage which works backwards and forwards from the
286 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND AVOOL.
stationary part. On this carriage are placed rows of spindles,
which twist the yarn, and at the same time winds it on smaller
bobbins. The carriage at the commencement of the opening
process is close up to the stationary frame, when the ends of
the rounded or condensed sliver are passed through two
smaller rollers called giving-off rollers, and are connected
with the bobbins on the carriage. The carriage now com-
mences to travel backward on its rails, the sliver being
simultaneously delivered to it through the rollers until a
certain length is given out ; and as the carriage is moving the
spindles revolve slowly, twisting the sliver ; but up to this
stage there has been no drawing out. The rollers now stop
giving out sliver, the carriage still continuing to travel
back, and the spindles, now revolving at a greater
speed draw out the sliver fully 100 per cent., twisting it at
the same time. The required twisting is finished when the
carriage becomes stationary at the end of the rails ; then the
spindles are reversed several times to unwind a small portion
of the yarn which the twisting movement leaves at the end of
the bobbin. The carriage now runs back to the stationary
frame, the spindles winding the finished yarn on to the
bobbin.
WEAVING
Is the art of interlacing different yarns so as to form a
cloth or fabric. To form this fabric it is necessary to have
two kinds of yarn, the warp and weft. The warp is really the
foundation of the cloth, and the yarns used for that purpose
are mostly placed parallel the whole length required, forming
what is called the web, the weft is the yarn or thread which
is thrown crosswise from each side of the warp, so filling up
the latter and forming a fabric. The threads constituting a
warp are mounted on the weaving loom, the weft being
thrown across in a shuttle by a picking stick. There is a
•
MANUFACTURING. 287
difference between weaving, on the one hand, and, on the
other, knitting", netting, and looping, by which means clothes
can also be made from different threads. Cloth may also
be produced by felting, which does not require any spun
yarns, but is simply a method of entangling or matting the
raw material. Before the weaving process, the warp
yarns have to be arranged on a large frame, called a warping
frame, where all the threads intended to form the web
are placed parallel. In the finest cloths the warp
consists of many thousand threads. This operation is
performed on a warping machine, consisting of a vertically-
set reel on which the single thread from a row of bobbins is
drawn on to a beam. The individual threads are simultaneously
joined in a heck, which is made to slide up and down as the
warping frame revolves, thus delivering to the reel the threads
or yarns which form the web. In the heck there is a device
by which every alternate thread is raised up whilst the other
goes down, thus providing for the passage of the shuttle
crosswire, leaving the weft yarn behind each time. According
to the design of the cloth, so are these threads of yarn
arranged in the heck. This warp on the beam is now
handed to the beamer, who takes each end of the threads,
which are placed side by side, the width of the cloth to
be woven. The beamer having beamed the whole of the
warp, it is sent on to the weaver, who places it in position at
the back of the loom. Afterwards each thread is tied, or
connected otherwise, through a reed (a long, comb-like
article, made of thin, flat wire, placed top and bottom in two
longlathes of wood), with another thread left from the lastwoven
piece of cloth. When all the ends are connected, the whole
warp or web is secured on to a beam in the front of the loom,
on which the cloth is wound as it is woven. This reed is
fixed on to a movable beam, working backward and forward,
and this action causes the weft yarn left behind to be pushed up
each time the shuttle crosses the warp, and in this manner a
piece of cloth is woven.
288 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
CLOTH-FINISHING.
The web, or, in other words, a piece of cloth before it is
taken out of the loom, is in a very rough, unfinished state,
appearing slack, open, and showing all the traces of the
threads. These, with the greasy condition, and the effects
of the sizing, make the cloth dirty in appearance. All
these have to be removed by the aid of hot, soapy water,
in a trough, narrow at the bottom, and fitted with
wooden hammers, which, with the aid of s'team-povver, are
made to fall in a slanting direction on the cloth. After this
process the cloth is taken out and stretched, and then dried,
when it is handed to the burling process, an operation
performed by women, who pick out all moits, or double
threads, also darning any holes or open spots showing in
the cloth.
FULLING.
Fulling is another name forfeiting, milling, or shrinking,
and is a process confined to woollen manufacture, more
especially to the highest class, as broadcloths, doeskins, and
other cloths having a nap, or a smooth, soft, velvety surface.
Such cloths are made from the highest class of serrated wools,
which possess the real felting or fulling properties.
Fulling is performed in milling stocks, or in the more
modern milling machines. The cloth in the rough, as it is
taken out of the loom, is thoroughly soaked in hot water
and soap, afterwards put into the stocks or machine, when
heavy weights are arranged so as to be raised by power.
These weights are then allowed to fall simultaneously on the
piece of cloth, such falling or beating causing it to become
regular and even in thickness ; at the same time there is a
gradual fulling or felting taking place, and when completed
all traces of the yarn threads are obliterated. After the cloth
is taken out of the fulling machines or stocks, it undergoes
MANUFACTURING. 289
another washing process, so as to perfectly free it from soap,
which is done by passing the fulled fabric through a bath of
warm to gradually cold, clean water. The cloth is now
tentered, or stretched, by being fixed on large heavy
frames, to keep out all creases whilst it is drying. This
tentering is very often done in the open air, although most
woollen factories are provided with a tentering-room well
heated by steam. It is understood that when cloth is tentered
in the open air it is always a much better colour than if
treated in an enclosed room heated artificially.
TEASLING.
This is an operation to raise a nap or pile on the surface
of the cloth after it has been milled. The raising of the nap
is accomplished by the aid of the prickly or spiked head of a
plant, called the teasle, which is chiefly grown in Belgium.
The spikes are sharp-pointed, possessing pliability, but
sufficiently stiff for the teasling work. The teasle-spiked
heads are worked on the milled cloth, scratching its surface ;
by forcing their way they become entangled with the fibres,
pulling out their ends straight, thus causing a fine but
irregular nap. Formerly the teasle heads were arranged,
when the operator brushed the tightly-stretched cloth
all over. However, this laborious work is almost out
of date, being superseded by what is called a dressing-
machine. This machine consists of a cylinder densely
covered with small steel spikes, and rotates at a high velocity.
The cloth is stretched uniformly, and when the surface comes
in contact with the cylinder the spikes raise the ends of
the fibres, the same as in the hand-teasling, leaving the
same uneven surface.
290 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
CROPPING.
When the cloth has passed through the ordeal of
teasling there remains on the surface innumerable ends of
fibres, giving a rough and almost ragged appearance. These
ends, and anything rough on the surface of the cloth, have to
be removed, so as to give a more finished appearance. The
removal of these multitudes of ends is performed exactly in
the same manner as a mowing-machine or a lawn-mower acts
on a lawn of grass. The machine now used for this cropping
purpose is a cylinder, on which are placed knives or cutters,
slightly spiral. This cylinder so armed revolves very
rapidly, and as it comes in contact with -the evenly-stretched
cloth, crops or cuts off all protruding ends, etc., leaving a
smooth surface or pile.
PRESSING.
In order to give the cloth a more refined or finished
appearance, when taken out of the cropping machine, it is
brushed and freed from all loose fibres. The brushed piece
of cloth is then wound tightly round a drum, which is
now immersed in water heated up to 180°, and allowed to
stay for about four hours. The cloth and drum are taken out
and unwound, and re-wound end for end on another drum
and again immersed in the hot bath. Lastly, the cloth
is placed evenly in a hydraulic press, when heat is introduced,
either by placing hot iron plates in each fold or by
injecting steam through the press, the latter process having a
tendency to solidify and impart smoothness, also to develop
the brightness necessary in a well-finished cloth.
WOOL-COMBING.
There is no better-known term in connection with the
wool trade than combing ; and as regards the actual process
of wool-combing, very few pastoralists, or even many who
MANUFACTURING. 291
are engaged in the wool business, are acquainted with the
process. The term " combing wool " is used to distinguish
it from " clothing wool," and there is great distinction both
in the actual manipulation of each class of wool, and in the
appearances they have after being passed through the different
machines necessary for manufacture of' textile goods or
fabrics. In the clothing process the wool is torn up into the
smallest lengths for carding purposes ; in fact it has been
said that there is no wool too short if it only has two ends.
On the other hand, what is required for the combing process
is length and soundness, as the wool is combed out straight,
so that the fibres are placed parallel. To Australians generally
the following illustration will convey the real idea of the
meaning of wool-combing. There are very few countries
where horses are used so extensively, and play such an
important part, in the natural pursuits, more especially the
pastoral industry, as in these colonies. It is usual on sheep
and cattle stations to use horses for all kinds of work,
especially mustering, driving, and drafting, which, after a
course of continual and hard work, must have a rest or spell
for months. After this lengthy rest, the horses are run in
from spell paddocks, fresh and lively, and naturally present a
shaggy, rough appearance, more especially their tails and
manes. One of the first duties before a horse is put into work
again is to make him presentable by a little grooming and
cleaning of its long, straggling, entangled tail and mane.
This combing, or straightening out, of the tail and mane
really illustrates the wool-combing process. It is necessary
in the first place to have the matted, entangled tail opened out
or prepared, just the same as wool is prepared prior to being
put into the combing machine. In preparing the horse's tail
previous to the actual use of the comb is frequently a very
difficult matter, owing to the long, entangled, or cotty ringlets.
Under these circumstances it is usual to make use of the
strong blade of a pocket knife to ease or cut through the
entangled mass, so as to make the combing process easier for
292 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
both comb and comber. Now commences the real combing
process, and as the operator, with the aid of an ordinary stout
comb, forces his way through the horse's prepared tail. Every
time it gets easier, and each time combs out loose, dried short
hairs and knots, until the comb is full, when it has to be freed
of them. In this manner the horse's tail is made perfectly
free, and all the hairs are cleansed, sound, and lie parallel,
just the same as wool appears when it has passed through the
combing machine, after which it receives the name of Top or
Sliver. The short knots and hair combed out of the horse's
tail in the ordinary way represent the Noils which are combed
out of wool by the combing machine.
DRAWING.
Following the combing process is drawing. When the
sliver from the combing-machine is delivered, it is rolled into
a large ball, now called a top. This top is re-wound on to a
large bobbin, when it undergoes the operation of drawing, or,
in other words, the sliver has to be drawn out or
extended, thus reducing the body or bulk and adding to
the length. The drawing is done by connecting the
sliver to two receiving rollers, which pass it to a set of
delivery rollers, revolving more quickly than the receivers, so
as to draw or make the sliver thinner. In this manner the
sliver is drawn out several times, the fibres always lying
straight and parallel, differing in this from the woollen thread
or yarn. The last stage of drawing is called roving, differing
only in giving the drawing a little twist.
SPINNING.
The bobbins containing the slightly-twisted roving are
now ready for the spinning frame, which draws out, twists,
and winds the thread on to an elongated bobbin*
MANUFACTURING. 293
This movement is performed exactly on the same
principle as the drawing, only that the yarn is greatly
reduced in bulk, presenting a very fine, smooth thread,
sometimes so fine as to consist of only two or three fibres of the
finest merino wool. The spinning frame contains a great
number of spindles, all of which spin to the same count
or quality at the same time. The bobbins containing the
rovings are placed on steel pegs on the top or head of the
spinning frame, with a slight forward incline, so that the
thread is delivered readily. The roving is now passed on
between a pair of rollers, and is carried on by a pair of
carrier rollers to a pair of front rollers ; the upper is covered
with leather, whilst the lower are steel and grooved. The
space between the back and front rollers is where the final
drawing takes place, the fineness of the thread depending
entirely upon the rate of speed at which the front rollers
are travelling. Immediately the fine yarn has passed the
front rollers the twisting takes place, which is done by the
assistance of the spindle before the yarn is wound on to a
spool or tube. It is now ready to be handed to the
warper, if warp yarn, or to the weaver, if weft yarn.
DIFFERENT CLOTHS MADE FROM WOOLS.
Of the manufactured fabrics there are great numbers
coming under the principal or chief heads of woollen, made
from clothing wools ; worsted, made from combed wools ;
hosiery, made from an intermediate grade, coming between a
combing and a clothing, a wool of a soft, kind nature,
open, with little felting qualities. Clothing, or woollen,
embraces fabrics having a raised, fine nap or piled
surface — viz., livery, broadcloth, billiard, doeskin, cassimere,
melton, beaver, frieze, * piano-hammer head, saddle-cloth,
etc. Of cloths, cropped and fulled, Venetians, sataras, and
294 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
diagonals, the warp and weft being arranged differently.
Of tweeds, a very large variety, which are partially felted,
raised dry, cropped and pressed. There is an even greater
variety in cloths made from worsted, or combed wools — viz.,
Mousselaines, delaines, cashmeres, merinos, made from
merino wools ; Orleans, delaines, camlets, tartans, poplins,
and serges, made from demi-lustre wools ; Russell cords,
damasks, repps, sateens, lastings, linings, furniture cloths,
etc., made from the lustre wools. Hosiery is an extensive
branch of wool manufacture into light, open, unmilled, fabrics
—viz., Knitting yarns, clouds, under-garments, flannels, from
merino, fine English, and lambs' wools ; Blankets, wrappers,
shawls, curtain cloths, rugs, and carpets, from the coarser
short wools.
The United Insurance Go.
FIRE AND MARINE.
HEflD OfFKE:
George and Hunter Streets, Sydney.
Wool Insured from Sheep's back to London, covering
all Fire and Flood Risks.
BUILDINGS and THEIR CONTENTS and all
STATION PROPERTIES INSURED.
ADVERTISEMENTS.
295
For a Pleasant Beverage, and for a
Wholesome Food,
YOU CANNOT IMPROVE UPON
CADBURY'S
COCOA!
IT IS ABSOLUTELY PURE AND A PERFECT FOOD,
JOHNSON & VICARS,
Commission OJoolseoaMs,
Wool=Scouring and Fellmongering.
Wool Store-Circular Quay, Sydney.
Works— Water Reserve, Botany.
SOFTEST AND PUREST WATER.
Our Works are on
the most modern
S Ian, and both
r. Johnson and
Mr. Vicars super-
vise each lot to
ensure the most
profitable return
to the owner.
In every depart-
ment our appli-
ances are such
that we can com-
plete in tip- top
style 300 bales
per week in any
weather.
We scour for all
the best firms in
Sydney.
Write, and we
will give you all
particulars, or
any information.
29(1 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
FOOT ROT.
The question of foot rot is one that very materially
affects all owners of or those interested in sheep. Many
stations have hitherto never had this disease on them, but are
liable at any time, through interchange of stock, to have the
germs carried to them, for this disease, having once made its
appearance among the flocks, is liable at any time to break
out again ; the germs of the disease may lie on the ground
for months, or may be for years, only waiting a favourable
opportunity — a wet season — to once more bring it into
activity.
Sheep grazing on these localities, their feet will pick up
the germ hitherto dormant, and become infected, usually in
the wall of the hoof or in the cleft, which, if not attended to
at once, will break out into running ulcers, the discharge
from which, adhering to the ground and grass, and being of
an infectious nature, will be picked up by healthy sheep, and
thus rapidly spread through the entire flock.
Pastoralists, therefore, will do well to carefully look to
their sheep, especially merinos, which are particularly subject,
for any signs of foot rot, for should the disease once get a fair
hold, it will soon cause havoc among the flocks. As the
disease develops, the horn of the foot will grow long and
twisted, causing the sheep all degrees of lameness, and the
animal, from being unable to feed, will lose condition, and
die of starvation, though on the best of grass. Should it yet
live and be shorn, it will be found that the wool from a sheep
with foot rot, owing to the difference in the texture, will have
depreciated fully one penny per pound.
Any discovery, therefore, that is conducive to the cure
and prevention of foot rot cannot fail to be of great interest to
our sheep owners, many of whom have costly experiences of
coping with this disease. The most they have achieved has
been to afford temporary relief, and to check for a time the
ADVERTISEMENT.
297
GRAHAM & CO.'S
improved Patent Permanent
Foot=Rot Cure
. None Genuine .
without the Sig-
nature and Trade
. Mark of the .
Manufacturer on
the Label.
. Can be Used .
either by Hand-
Dressing or by
. running the .
Sheep through a
. . Trough. . .
The Only Genuine Specific for the Prevention and Cure of Foot-Rot.
PRICE, 1OS. per tin. In concentrated form. Sufficient to treat 250 Sheep.
SPECIAL GOLD MEDAL— Auckland (N.Z.) Exhibition, 1897.
1st CLASS CERTIFICATE— Canterbury Pastoral Association, 1890.
1st CLASS CERTIFICATE-Christchurch Exhibition, 1895.
Also New Zealand Government Certificates from Stock Inspectors at Blen-
heim, Hawera, and Palmerston North.
^^ a: :E s T i nun o
N. S. WALES. COOMA AND BAAN BAA, NEAR NARBABSI, July 14th, 1890.
Dear Sir, — Please send us three tins of Foot-Rot Powder, Graham and Co. s, same as you.
sent before. This is the best remedy I have ever used for Foot-Rot in sheep. It gives almost
instant relief. In such a season as the present, it will be an act of kindness on your part to
bring this remedy more prominently before your friend?. E. P. HCXLEY & Co.
VICTORIA. MOUNT NOORAT, 26th February, 1889.
This is to certify that Mr. Win. Graham dressed about 90 sheep with his Foot-Rot
Specific. These sheep were picked out by hand as being the worst affected that we had, seme
having been bad for over a year. After being dressed, they were turned out in a paddock with
others nearly as bad as themselves, and have remained with them since. They were first dressed
on October 31st, and have had three dressings since. They are now all cured, with the exception
of three sheep, each having one foot still affected. A. J. BLACK.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA. BUCKLAND PARK, S.A., September 8tb, 1897.
I have much pleasure in testifying to the value of Graham's Foot-Rot Specific, which I
have lately used with gratifying success on stud rams and other sheep at Buckland Park, the
property of L. G. Browne, Esq. For twenty years we have used other specifics without avail on
our wet country, but with Graham's Specific the sheep may be put back on wet pastures and
still improve and heal up. I treated thirty rams which had been suffering in a chronic state of
Foot-Rot for two years, and with one dressing of Graham's Mixture they were thoroughly sound
in three weeks. I also treated several sheep recently badly scalded between the hoofs, and in
three days they were able to walk about quite well and thoroughly dried up.
SIMON MATHESON, Manager
NEW ZEALAND. From MESSRS. MALLOCK & LANCE, HORSLEY DOWNS STATION, .
HORSLEY DOWNS, April 2nd, 1886.
This is to certify that Mr. William Graham has dressed some 3,000 sheep for Foot-Rot for
us, and at date of writing they appear to be sound after careful inspection
E. GILES (for Mallock and Lance).
N.B.— Mr. Lance was M.P. and was the Government nominee to represent N.Z. at the
Sheep Conference at Melbourne.
Tor all Particulars
apply
R. J. MACLEAN & CO.,
375 KENT STREET, SYDNEY
Hgents and «
« Importers,
298 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
progress of the ailment by using old-time remedies, the effect
of which was not permanent, and therefore very costly,
especially when used on a large scale, by reason of the
constant repetition in handling and attending to the sheep,
and often loss of the animals themselves, owing to the
increased suffering and wear and tear.
Anything, therefore, that is calculated to prevent this loss
and great expense, and thereby adding to the gains of
individual producers, is so much added to the wealth of the
community, an aid to the natural prosperity in which
everyone directly or indirectly participates. For these reasons
sheep owners should hail with pleasure the announcement
that a permanent cure for foot rot has been discovered,
genuine and reliable, which testimony of its efficacy has been
borne by many well-known sheep owners.
It is claimed also that after the comparatively trifling
initial cost incurred in its application the cure is permanent,
it having successfully withstood the severest tests which could
be applied to it by many large sheep owners, who, unfor-
tunately for them, have this disease continually among their
flocks. The sheep, after being once dressed, may run on the
very ground on which they became infected, for the specific
will act as a preventative, securing sheep under treatment
from picking up fresh germs, and guarding those cured from
again contracting the disease.
The claim put forth by the discoverer is well founded,
and, in face of the evidence as furnished by these well-known
gentlemen, completely answers in the affirmative settlement
of the vexed question, " Is foot rot curable? " and is, therefore,
very welcome news indeed.
This remedy, therefore, should be a boon indeed to our
pastoralists generally, and should be considered in the light
o a public benefactor.
ADVERTISEMENTS.
299
P. & O.
'S RVYAL MAIL SERVICES TO EUROPE, EGYPT, INDIA,
AND JAPAN.
p.
&
o.
DEPARTURES FROM SYDNEY, MELBOURNE
EVERY FORTNIGHT.
AND ADELAIDE
p.
&
o.
PASSAGE MONEY 10 —
MARSEILLES, Single
LONDON
INDIA
. . £32 to £65*
35 to 70*
25 to 40
MARSEILLES, Return
fin f/^ inn
LONDON
INDIA " 41 l°0 ^
*There are a limited number of Berths for which the charge is
from £5 to tlO less.
p.
&
o.
E. TRELAWNY, SUPT.
F. WHITE, AGENT
ELDER, SMITH & CO., LTD., AGENTS.'.'
CHAS. PARBURY & CO., AGENTS
SYDNEY.
MELBOURNE.
ADELAIDE.
BRISBANE,
300
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
Statistics of Stud and Flock Sheep.
Highest Prices Realised, 1890-1900.
The following is a list of the highest prices paid for
Merino Stud Sheep at the Sydney Sales during the ten
years from 1890 to 1900 : —
RAM.
Sacramento III
Big Leg
Hero Prince
Ram
Matchless..
No. 9 by ditto ...
(Not named)
Golden Tom
Albert III
Wanderer ...
Ram
Albion
Golden Horn II.
American Ram
Triumph
Young Golden Horn
Agitator
Chapman ..
Paragon
Royal Hero
Dense Royal Hero
Gold Drop...
(Not named)
Albert VI.
Eighth Albert . .
(Not named)
Paradox II.
(Not named, sire Logan V
Golden Fleece
SELLER.
1890,
.. W. H. Gibson ...
. . W . Gibson & Son
, T. Gibson
. T. McFarland ...
»
,. R. Gadegast
1891.
. James Gibson
. W. Gibson and Son
. T. Gibson
. Collaroy Co.
. R. and P. McFarland
1892.
. James Gibson
. Hon. G. H. Cox...
. McFarland Bros.
. C. B. Grubb
1893.
. H. C. White
. R. D. and W. Clark
. James Gibson
. W. Gibson and Son
,,
1894.
R. D. and W. Clark
. W. Gibson and Son
. Collaroy Co.
1895.
. Hon. J. Gibson ...
) Collaroy Co.
. Clark Bros.
PRICE.
Gxs.
PURCHASER.
370 Cobb and Co.
310 C. Fetherstonhaugh
700 W. H. Watt
500 F. E. Body
1000 P. McFarland
460 Hon. W. Halliday
550 Jas. Lee
370 J. W. Eckford
710 BathurstS.B. Assotn.
450 L. E. Lowe
500 E. Van Weenan
650 A. A. Co.
630 Hon. H. R. Roberts
570 Collaroy Co.
500 R. Rouse, jnr.
500 James Lee
300 J. R. Gill
300 James Lee
250 Henry Moses
500 C. B. Grubb
250 Dangar Bros.
500 J. C. Watson
200 P. Jones
170 Mackay Bros.
255 E. Martin
190 R. M. F. Eckford
150 Tubbo Estate Co.
260 J. Jones
155 Van Weenan
ADVERTISEMENTS.
801
PATENT WIRE STRAINER.
The following are a few of the many advantages possessed by this
Strainer over others : —
1. It will strain wires at' a post without having to plug the holes (which
many posts in, an old fence will not stand).
'2. It will splice wires between posts.
3. It will mend posts that have been split, by straining a piece of wire round
them.
4. It is neat, simple, and portable, being only 7ins. in length and 21bs. in
weight. It can be easily carried in the pocket or on the saddle. As this Strainer
is made of a special quality of steel, it is very strong and not liable to derange-
ment, and although it will do all the work claimed for other Wire-Strainers —
and more — it is both simple in construction and working, and cheap.
FXfeXCZ: J.O/6.
Sent Post Free in New South Wales on receipt of n/6 ; other Colonies, 12/6.
jforton's patent Wire ^trainer nr ..mr
Office: 33 HOWE STREET, SYDNEY.
William Brooks and Co.
We Make a Speciality of . . STATION PRINTING.
We Supply all Descriptions of STATIONERY.
We keep a Large Variety of . SPECIAL BOOKS and
PRINTED FORMS
& " * ~ " ~" '
For Station Proprietors*
\1 Castlereagh Street, Sydney.
SEND TO US FOR
ANYTHING YOU REQUIRE.
Telephone 8 JO.
302
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
STATISTICS OF STUD AND FLOCK SHEEP— Continued.
RAM.
SELLER.
PRICE.
GKS.
PURCHASER.
1896.
President ... ...
... Hon. J. Gibson ...
... 1600 Grubb and Lawrence
Ben Harrison III.
... E. D. Morrison ...
... 700 Brooke Bros.
Pastoralist II.
... J. B. Gibson
... 350 F. Reach
(Not named)
... J. Taylor
... 345 E. Martin
(Not named)
... S. McCaughey ...
... 500 J. S. Horsfall
1897.
S McCaughev
300 R. Whitehead
Banker
... 270 J. S. Horsfall
Royal Hero II. ...
. . W. Gibson and Son
... 250 J. M' Donald
Third Hero II. ...
, .
... 250 W. Leonard
Royalist
... W. H. Gibson ...
... 1000 Moses Bros.
Waterloo ...
.. James Gibson
580 A. A. Dangar
Trafalgar
... ,, ...
... 350 S. White
Loyalty
. . Thomas Gibson . . .
.. 280 E. Martin
1898.
Federation
... H. C. White ...
... 400 Exors. R. F. Horsley
Macquarie...
.. Hon. Jas. Gibson
... 510 Scottish Aus. Invt. Co.
Progress ...
... Thos. Gibson ...
... 310 H. C. White
Son of Progress ...
„
... 410 J. B. Bettington
Half -Sovereign ...
... Hon. Jas. Gibson
... 200 G. C. Clark
Son of President ...
,,
... 270 E. Martin
1899.
The Admiral
... Thos. Gibson
... 1500 G. F. Simpson
Pioneer
. . John Taylor
... 900 McMaster Bros.
Young Royal Hero
... C. B. Grubb
... 700 C. Leonard
Son of Primus
... John Taylor
... 670 Fairbairn Pastoral Co.
Premier
... Clark Bros.
... 500 Wm. Keogh
Captain
.. Hon. Jas. Gibson
.'.. 420 C. Leonard
General
... H. C. White ...
... 300 White Bros.
Reserve
... Hon. Jas. Gibson
... 300 N. McCallum
1900.
Loyalty II.
... Thomas Gibson ...
... 600 Keach and Bennett
Royalty
. . Herbert Gatenby
... 505 E. Martin
Young Warrior ...
... W. Gibson and Co.
. . . 325 Tubbo Estate Co.
Young Vice-President
... Hon. F. W. Grubb
... 310 Ryder Bros.
Slender Sam
.. H. C. White
... 300 H. E. A. & V. White
Sterling
.. R. T. Gibson ...
... 300 McDonald Bros.
No. 3 Loyalty ...
... Thomas Gibson ..
... 300 W. A. Gardiner
Ram, by Sterling...
... R. T. Gibson ...
... 210 R. T. M. Eckford
Royal
... E. W. Gibson ...
200 Dangar and McDonald
Sir John
... W. H. Bennett ...
... 280 Geo. Bruce [Bros.
Commander-in-Chief
.. S. H. Grueber, jnr.
... 250 N. A. Gatenby
ADVERTISEMENT.
308
FLOOD'S PATENT PRIZE WATERLIFTS
And Mr. SAMUEL McCAUGHEY'S SHEEP.
'• Goolgumbla, Jerilderie.
March 29th, 1890.
ME. F. FLOOD. Sydney,
Dear Sir,— Your letter of the 24thinst., asking for
some particulars of work done with th etwo Waterlifts
purchased from you, received.
I may say that the results are excellent throughout
I have been working both Lifters all the Bummer, filling
tanks in various parts of the run.
The 34 inch Lift I found the most useful, especially
where water had to be taken any considerable distance.
In one instance the water travelled six miles and five
cVains in an open drain to tnnks. Uoth Lifters have been
kept going night and day, Sunday included, all the summer,
and are still at work, and the co?t of repairs has been
infinitesimal. The Wells vary in depth from 100 feet to
140 feet. In practice I find the best speed for the 3 J inch
to be 75 revolutions, and for the 2£ inch 90. I filled or
partly filled, thirteen tanks, some of them very large, the
distance from wells varying from half-a-mile up to over
six miles.
I estimate the quantity of water lifted in the 24
hours by the 3£ inch to be 288,000 gallons, and for the
2£ inch*J44,000 gallons; but by running them ata higher
rate of speed, without the intermediate gear, better results
could be obtained. As, however, it was imperative that
the Lifters be kept going without any serious stoppage
for repairs, I did not run any risks.
The depth of wells did not seem to make much differ-
ence in the quant'ty of water lifted, it being merely a matter of more or less steam.
The 3£ inch Lift if, worked with a 12 h.p. engine, and the 2£ inch Lift with *
6h.p.
I expect to stop work for this season in a fortnight's time.
Yours faithfully,
S. V. STEAD,
[Manager for SAMUEL McCAUGHET, ESQ.]
P.S — I have made a careful estimate of the quantity of water lifted, making
full allowance for shifting plant and for repairs, and I find that over 29,000,000
gallons of water was lifted by the 3£ inch and nearly 15,000 000 gallons by the 2|
inch. One large dam watering from paddocks got over 7,000,000 gallons. The
stock were watering in the drains all the time the pumping was going on, the
length of drains used being over twenty one miles, and these were made with »
drain plough made on the station. A 6 h.p. engine in good order would, I think,
work the 3£ inch Lifter.
REVISED LIST OF
PRICES FEBRUARY 1st,
1900.
Diameter
Power required
Quantity
Price with
For Every
of
for
raised per
frame for
additional
Cylinder.
H>igh Lift.
Minute.
12 feet.
foot.
1$ in.
1 man 35 feet
14 gals.
£16
10s. Extra
2 >t
1 man 20
24 „
£16
10s.
2* .,
1 man 10
50 „
£16
10s.
3 „
1 man 10
60 „
£20
12s. 6d
3* „
2 men 10
100 „
£24
15s.
5 »
1 horse 10
300 „
£36
20s.
7 „
2 horses 10
600 „
^48
30s.
10 „
4 horeea 1C
1200 „
£81
60s. ,,
Or 6 strong horses will raise 2000 Gallons per minute 8 feet.
Address : 60 Druitt Street, Sydney.
304
AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
New South Wales Sheep Returns,
The number of sheep in the colony during the thirty-
eight years ending 3ist December, 1898, stand as follows : —
Year.
No.
Year.
No.
Year.
No.
1861
... 6,119,169
1874
... 22,797,416
1887
... 46,965,152
1862
... 6,558,896
1875
... 25,353,924
1888
... 46,503,469
1863
.;. 7,169,126
1876
.. 25,269,755
1889
.. 50,106,768
1864
... 9,082,463
1877
... 21,521,662
1890
. 55,986,431
1865
... 9,650,106
1878
.. 25,479,484
1891
... 61,831,416
1866
.. 11,644,593
1879
.. 30,062,910
1892
... 58,080,114
1867
... 15,066,377
1880
.. 35,398,121
1893
... 56.980,688
1868
... 16,000,090
1881
.. 36,591,946
1894
... 56,977,270
1869
... 16,848,217
1882
.. 36,114,814
1895
. 47.617,687
1870
... 16,218,825
1883
.. 37,915,510
1896
... 48,318,790
1871
... 16,766012
1884
.. 31,660,321
1897
... 43,952,897
1872
... 17,873,696
1885
... 37,820,906
1898
... 41,809,038
1873
... 18,990,595
1886
39,169,304
1899
... 36,313,514
Sheep Returns of the Seven Colonies.
COMPARISON FOR THE YEARS 1891, 1895, AND 1899.
In 1891 the return was the largest ever known for Australasia.
Colony.
1891
1895
1899
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
West Australia
Tasmania
New Zealand ..
61,831,416
12,928,148
20,289,633
7,745,541
1,962,212
1,664,218
18,570,752
47,617,687
13,180,943
19,856,959
6,500,000
2,295,832
1,523,846
19,138,493
"
36,313,514
13,180,943
17,552,608
5,076,696
2,244,888
1,493,638
19,673,725
Total Australasia
124,991,920
110,113,760 95,536,012
No return has been made up in Victoria since 1894. The
figures of that year are, therefore, repeated for 1895 and 1899.
It may be of interest to mention that the latest statistics
from Argentina (S.Am.) give the number of sheep in that
country as 95 millions, of which about 60 millions are long-
wools and crossbreds. In New South Wales the proportion
of long-woolled and crossbred sheep is 8 per cent.
ADVERTISEMENT.
305
Telephone 38 Paddington.
NEW SOUTH WALES
0.
J93, J95 CLEVELAND STREET,
>Redfern, Sydney.
This Sulky
without Hood
£11
These Sulkies are fitted with
1-| 4 plate springs. 1| half patent
axles, and Ig 4 ft. 4in. wheel
tyres in Ig and f tyres, painted
any colour, or varnished in
natural wood. Children's seats
to any Sulky, 7s. 6d. Lamps,
from 10s. per pair extra.
N. B. — Sulkies or Buggies made
to suit smallest or largest horse,
at same price.
This Splendid Bent Shaft Sulky, without hood, £11 Os Od.
Write for our Illustrated Catalogue.
Mounted on 1J springs. 1 £ i
patent axle and 4 ft. 4in. If
wheels, painted Green or Black,
lined Green or Red, or Var-
nished in Natural Wood,
trimmed in best Rubber Duck
to match painting, £8 10s Od.
Lamps, from 10s. per pair
extra.
OUR SPECIAL No. 2
£8 18/6
This is our Special Line of Straight Shafts Sulkies No. 2.
fiarness & Saddlery of every description.
306 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
Notable Prices for WooL
Realised at Auction by Winchcombe, Carson, & Co., Ltd
Season 1899-1900.
We particularise here those Wools which sold in our sales
at i5d. and upwards for Greasy, and 2q.d. and upwards
for Scoured.
GREASY.
Price. Owners and District.
18id.— H. R. F. Hume, Burrowa.
174<1.— E. H. Turner, Guiming.
17icl.— H. R. F. Hume, Borrowa (ewes).
17d. — McMaster Bros. , Bundella ; H. R. F. Hume, Burrowa (w. ); Chas. C.
Hall, Yass.
l. — P. McGrath, Burrowa ; R. A. Wiseman, Buiiclarra ; John and J. A. Love,
Bookham.
McMaster Bros., Bundella ; F. and G. Manuel, Armidale ; Chas. C. Hall,
Yass(clo.); Andrew Davis, Yass; Prowse Bros., Adelong ; R. A.
Wiseman, Bundarra (com.) ; Richard Misseii, Bendemeer ; McMaster
Bros., Coolah (sc. w.).
6£<1.— John Cameron, Armidale: Peter Boy ton , Illabo ; F. and G. Manuel,
Armidale (w. ); Hector Cameron, Armidale ; Mrs. Kenneth
Finlayson, Armidale ; John Gilanders, Armidale ; Austin J.
Greenland, Uralla ; W. T. Edwards, Bombala.
l(>d. — Machen and Duncan, Gilgaudra ; Peter Boyton, Illaboo (ewes) ; McMaster
Bros., Weetalabah ; Nathaniel Melrose, Adelong; R. H. D. Jones,
Coonabarabran ; H. R. F. Hume, Burrowa (culls) ; Joseph T3Tler,
Wellington; J. H. Horton, Rye Park; Henry Johnson, Armidale;
R. A. Wiseman, Bundarra (2nd com.); Thus. Gallaher, Darling
Downs; Hector Cameron, Armidale (e. w. ) Richard Missen,
Bendemeer (e.w.) ; P. McGrath, Burrowa (e.w.) ; F. J. Fahey,
Burrowa; Alex. Eraser, Armidale : Furracabad Station, Glen Inne.s ;
John and J. A. Love, Bookham (h.) ; John Rogerson, Inverell.
ADVERTISEMENTS. 307
REGISTERED "SQUATTER" REG'STERED
Sheep parking Oil^
BLACK, RED9 BLUE AND YELLOW.
ALL DRY IN SIX HOURS NO OTHER BRANDING OILS CAN EQUAL THIS.
Without Pitch. Without Tar. Without Lead.
OR ANY OTHER INJURIOUS PROPERTY
Prepared Especially for WOOL MARKING. Will Leave NO STAIN whatever.
Will not CRISP the Wool nor Lessen its Guaranteed ABSOLUTELY HARMLESS.
Value. Made from PURE VEGETABLE OIL, and
Will SCOUR CLEAN OUT of the Wool. NATURAL HARMLESS COLOURS.
ALWAYS UNIFORM. READY FOR IMMEDIATE USE. STIR WELL BEFORE USING.
Put up in 5 and ID-Gallon Drums, and 4-Gallon Tins.
Samples and all Particulars from
LEWIS & WHITTY, «» c •.-««. or THI
"Squatter" Sheep Marking Oil,
<fe STTIDISJ UU
Telephone 1149 Cable Address : " IRELAND."
J. IRELAND,
Flour, Grain & Produce Merchant
And Commission Agent,
486 KENT STREET, SYDNEY, N.S.W.,
And at NEWCASTLE.
Auction Sales of Hay, Chaff, Wheat, Bran, Pollard, Oats, &c., at Redfern
Daily, and Pigs and Calves at Corporation Sale Yards, Sussex
Street. Lucerne Hay, Potatoes, Onions, &c., Market Wharf.
Station Supplies, including Wooipacks, Wheat Bags, Fencing Wire,
Galvanised Iron, Kerosene, &c , &c., at Lowest Market Rates.
Correspondence Invited. All Communications receive Immediate Attention.
308 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
NOTABLE. PRICES FOR WOOL (GREASY)— Continued.
Price. Owners and District.
15fd.---R. and F. Giles, Gunnedah ; H. Peters, Gunnedah ; Me Master Bros.,
(Joolah (see.); Fred. J. Bo \vhay, Moloug ; Chas. H. Banks, Rye
Park : W. W. Crothers, Goodooga : Win. Ross, Darling Downs ;
Peter Burt, Tarcutta : Alex. McClenaghan, Armidale ; Win. Rodger,
Narrawa ; John Wheelihan, Blandford ; J. T. Cochrane, Castle
Doyle.
15£d. — Andrew Murphy, Timor ; James Williamson. Parkes ; A. J. and D. E.
Cox. Mudgee ; McMaster Bros., Bundella (h.); John Carberryv
Coolac ; John Harper, Dubbo ; Job Fowler, Monteagle ; H. C.
Holmes, Glen Innes : ( Jeo. Hush, Braidwood ; Prowse Bros. ,
Adelong (ewes); R. A. Wiseman, Bundarra (2nd clo. ) ; Arthur M.
Rouse, Gulgong (a. ) ; John Baker, Uralla ; J. and G. McRae.
Wollomombi ; Steel Bros., Walcha ; Isaac- Spicer, Tenterden :
Alex. McClenaghan, Armidale (wethers) : Samuel Best, Tang-
mangaroo ; Fred. Schroder, Walcha ; John and J. A. Love,
Bookham (f.) ; Furracabad Station, Glen Innes ; Geo. Merriman.
Murrumbateman (e. and w.) ; John Rogerson. Inverell (e. ) ; \\'. T.
Edwards, Bombala.
Scott Bros., Dubbo ; Job Fowler, Monteagle (hoggets) ; Joseph Hancock,
Grenfell ; Frank B. Osborne, Monteagle ; Peter Boy ton, Illaboo (h.);
McMaster Bros., Bundella (see. and w. ); R. H. D. Jones, Coona-
barabran (2nd w.) ; James Morrison, Wellington; Samuel Davis.
Yass ; Thos. Patterson, Cumnock ; R. A. Wiseman, Bundarra
(necks); C. H. Barbour, Yass; Arthur M. Rouse, Gulgong (e.);
John Miller, Yeoval ; H. C. Holmes. Glen Innes ; F. J. Fahey,
Burrowa (ewes); Mrs. Kenneth Finlayson. Armidale (wethers);
Samuel Best, Tangmangaroo (ewes) ; Daniel 'I omlinson, Sofala ;
Wm. Sherring, P^uchareena ; Michael Rourke, Merriwa ; John
Cameron, Armidale (e. and w.) ; John McAllister, Armidale;
Dominick Higgins, Wallangra ; Furracabad Station. Glen Innes.
Andrew Murphy, Timor (e, and h.); Stewart M. Ryrie. Yass; Bolton
and Cadell, Glen Innes ; John M'Phee. Aberdeen ; W. H. Teys,
Goondiwindi ; Mrs. Alice Sutherland, Young ; B. F. Jakins, Moree;
John Perks, Parkes ; W. Richardson, Grenfell ; H. and A J. Price,
Mudgee; McMaster Bros., Coolah (c.w., c.e. ); Leslie A. Lane,
Orange; Wm. Roworth, Quirindi ; WTm. Harris, Warialda ; W. 1).
Ryrie, Gunning ; John Sparkes, senr. , Condobolin ; Fred. SippelL
Dungowan ; John and Jas. A. Love, Bookham (crossbred) ; R. A.
Wiseman, Bundarra (2 com. ); W. W. Crothers, Goodooga (hog.);
Arthur M. Rouse, Gulgong (broken) ; Joseph Douglas, Moonbi
(crossbred) ; Casey Bros., Cassilis ; S. G. Sowden, Coonabarabran ;
Mrs. K. Finlayson, Armidale (clo.) ; Peter Burt, Tarcutta (pieces) ;
Jas. E. O'Delf, Uralla ; H. C. Holmes, Glen Innes ; Robt. Crossley,
Bowning ; C. A. Evans, Narrawa (crossbred) ; Donald Cameron,
Wollomombi : Arthur W. Everett, Guyra : John Wheelihan,
Blandford (ewes) ; John Cameron, Armidale (crossbred) ; Furraca-
bad Station, Glen Innes (crossbred) ; Samuel Donaldson,
Warialda ; W. Rodger, Narrawa (ewes) ; I). McPherson, Wol-
lomombi.
ADVERTISEMENT.
309
" Patent Pollard Uistributor.
FOR DESTROYING RABBITS.
•HE above machine, as the name " Simplicity" implies, is a very simple one, wl nc ha
verage intelligence, can work very easily, there being
,
lad of fifteen years, with the average neigence, ,
nothing complicated, consequently there is no chance of it going out of order. ©
nothing compile , ^ th^ Uard is of wood, having a double screw at the
6UPPTht mSela. been proved a great successon the stations where it has been worked.
TvrDT?mvrfYNTQ TTfVR USE —Fasten the machine on the back of a spring cart or dray,
DIRECTIONS FOR USJS. ™ h cutter to allow tho llard to drop
ami remove °«e ^d ( L?i to .place the "wheels in line that the band may run true on the
&t^^S^JShwlUrd^S^ng room for the pressure plate to be put on it and
ring. JP^^^^^^I^^^M^ pressure into position, then run the band
place the lever . attached to the inside of the near wheel of the cart, and pass
over the screw wheel ; when done all is ready for use.
Scantier, £1 extra
Price Of Machine, £5 5S-
- 9'
310 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP AND WOOL.
NOTABLE PRICES FOR WOOL- -Continued.
SCOURED.
Price. Owners and Districts.
28|d. — W. W. Crothers (scoured by Hayes Bros.), Goodooga.
28d.— W. W. Crothers, Goodooga (combing); J. A. Milligan, Ilfracombev
Queensland.
27^(1.— Waddell Bros., Bathurst (1st skin).
•27 [d.— E.F.G. Peak Downs, Collingwood Works; " Randwick," Collingwood
Works.
27d.— Waddell Bros., Bathurst (1st clo.) ; " Randwick," Collingwood Works.
262d.— Jno. R. Home, Hillston.
26$d.— Waddell Bros., Bathurst (a. a. a.) ; "XB/F," scoured by Swinbourne and
Stephen ; W. W. Crothers (scoured by Hayes Bros. ), Goodooga (pcs.)
26?d. — John Horton, Senior's Scour, Bourke ; G. D. Walcott, Delegate (1st com. ).
2<Jd.— Geo. W. Carter, Goondiwindi : G. D. Walcott, Delegate (f.); Thomas
Welsh, sen., Mungundi.
25jd. — Robt. H. Duncan, Collingwood Works; Packer and Knox, Brisbane.
25$d. —Swinbourne and Stephen, Bolariy ; Mackay Bros., Walgett.
25id. -Waddell Bros., Bathurst (a. a. a.) ; R. Trout, Brisbane; Mackay Bros.r
Walgett ; Thomas Howlett, Boorooma Works ; 7. A. Milligan,
llfracombe, Q. (pcs.).
25d. — Martin Ryan, Brewarrina ; Mrs. Ellen O'Mullane, Piliga ; Wm. Taylor..
Walgett ; McKay Bros. , Walgett ; R. Trout, Brisbane.
24£d.— W. R. Hepburn, Berridale ; Mackay Bros., Walgett; Thomas Hewlett,.
Boorooma Works, Darling River.
241(1.— Geo. W. Carter, Goondiwindi (e.); P. V. C. Powell, Walgett ; Mackay
Bros.. Walgett (r.) ; Edwd. Bishop, Come-by-Chance (1st clo.);
F. H. King, Cunnamulla, Q.
24Jd —Packer and Knox, Brisbane ; P. V. C. Powell, Walgett ; Mackay Bros.,.
Walgett (broken) ; Edwd. Bishop, Come-by-Chance (pieces) ; Thos.
Howlett, Boorooma ; Edward Fuller, Walgett.
24d. — Ernest C. Carter, Brewarrina ; Waddell Bros., Bathurst ; Mackay Bros.,
Walgett (bellies) ; Thomas Howlett, Boorooma ; Jas. Hudson and
Co., Tumut ; Jas. Ryan. Enngonia ; T. Pollard, Mossgiel.
ADVERTISEMENT.
311
WILLWn BROOK5 ™ CO.,
Educational Publishers,
Contractors for the supply of Reading Books to the Public Instruction
Department of N.S.W.
Printers, Lithographers, Stationers,
17 CASTLEREAGH ST., SYDNEY.
And at BRISBANE-
312
AUSTRALIAN1 SHEEP AND WOOL.
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(
A D V E R T I S E M K X T . 3 1 o
"The Stock & Station Journal."
The only Metropolitan Newspaper that is devoted
wholly and solely to the interests of the
Producers.
IT IS ISSUED TWICE A WEEK,
It is the Best Advertising
~ ,
Medium in the Colony ...
THE SUBSCRIPTION IS 8s* 6d* A YEAR, PAYABLE
IN ADVANCE* POSTAGE EXTRA.
ADDRESS—
Stock Journal newspaper Co.,
M CASTLEREAGH STREET, SYDNEY,
ADVERTISEMENT.
SOME NEW BOOKS .
BY AUSTRALIAN AUTHORS.
PUBLISHED BY
WILLIAM BROOKS & CO.,
SYDNEY AND BRISBANE.
GUM LEAVES," by Ethel Turner. Most attractively
got up, and copiously illustrated by Mr. D. H. Souter.
Price, 3/6.
PRESS EXTRACTS.
The Sydney Morniny Herald says : — "The author's freshness of
humour and vigour of fancy have commended her to the public taste, and
' Gum Leaves ' will certainly not detract from her reputation. The book
generally, which is admirably illustrated by Mr. D. H. Souter, is of a high
order of excellence."
The Town and Country Journal says : — " A new book for young
people, as novel as it is delightful. .........
A number of short, gracefully-written stories worthy of the author of
' Seven Little Australians/ and helpful suggestions for bush children are
among the many noticeable features of this very original production."
The Sydney Mail says : — The tales are dear little stories that seem
to belong to the Australian nurseries. . . . filled with quaint, artistic-
sketches. It is full of pleasant tales and articles and quips and cranks
for Australian children, and Mrs. Curlewis is now a recognised depicter
of child life— an eminence many desire, but few attain to.''
The Stock and Station Journal says : — " It is a book for children, and
it jingles, and rattles, and gurgles all the time. One of the odd things in
it is a whole pile of letter8 from children — real children, in real towns.
It is, by long odds, the best children's book ever issued in Australia."
The Australasian says : — "A capital collection of stories and verse*
for the young. ' Gum Leaves ' can be confidently recommended as a
present for young children."
ADVERTISEMENT. 315
The A.S. Australian Register says : — " The little volume, which has
been ornately and quaintly prepared by the publishers, is full of quiet and
innocent fun from cover to cover."
The Brisbane Telegraph says : — " Ethel Turner's name will sell this
book to those who know her ; and those who do not know her, on seeing
the book, will buy it for its own sake. It is a capital book for a birthday
present, a Xmas Box, or a New Year's (rift."
THE VOYAGE OF THE MONSOON,"
by R. McMillan. A book for boys ; also for girls and
grown-up people. Well Illustrated. Cloth, 2/6,
Paper, 2/-.
PRESS EXTRACTS.
The Sydney Daily Telegraph says : — " That is how this bright little-
tale for boys strikes the grown-up reader, who may also find pleasure in
it as a story not artificially 'made up,' but ' growing' by
frequent telling by one who really loves and understand boys."
The Sydney Morning Herald says: — "Mr. McMillan's story is a
vivid narrative, which will be read with interest, even though the con-
ditions therein described are now out of date."
The South Australian Register says : — "The audience to whom this
attractive work of adventure is specially addressed will strongly appreciate
and enjoy it."
LANDLOPERS," by J. le Gay Brereton. A book full
of interest to Australian readers. Many Illustrations.
Price, 3/6.
PRESS EXTRACTS.
The Bulletin says : — " It is good reading, and leaves a good memory/'
The Daily Telegraph says :— "Alt occasional faint echo of Washington
Irving strikes the ear ; we get a passing touch of Morris ; but such associa-
tions, far away and unconscious, only add to the pleasantness of the general
effect."
The Evening News says: — "Although this literary field has been
pretty well worked bare, Mr. Le Gay Brereton manages to reap some
harvest of thought from it, and his ' Landlopers ' will be followed with
interest by most readers The book is capitally illustrated by Mr. D. H.
Souter."
The Producer and Exporter says : — "A volume of some charm and
more than slight interest. The book gains greatly from Mr. D. H. Souter*s
sympathetic illustrations."
The Sydney Stock and Station Journal says : — "As dealing with a
new field of literature, ' Landlopers ' stands alone among our books. No
one has told in the same easy English the beauty of bush and plain. Clever
illustrations add greatly to the attractiveness of the book."
3 1 0 A D V K R T I S E M E X T .
" BUBBLES," by R. F. Irvine, M A. An Australian
Fairy Tale, delightfully written and illustrated.
This is an exceptionally handsome gift book for
children. Price, 3 (>.
PRESS EXTRACTS.
The Sydney Mail says : — " A book that brings back all the early
days of my childhood's memory, when fairy tales and fairy stories were my
all in all. Filled, in addition, with quaint, artistic designs, it will make
you, who are so fond of art in all its branches, long to possess its pictures,
and even have them framed, for the quaint originality of the captivating
sketches make me feel they deserve a better fate than being consigned to a
bookshelf. It seems a book likely to become destined to please not only
little children, but folks who have long since ceased to regard themselves as
juveniles, and when you receive it I feel certain you will recognise the
dainty merit of the publication."
The Sydney Daily Teletjraph says : — "A CHILD'S FAIRYLAND. — Mr
Irvine tells, as only a true child-lover can, of wondrous adventures among
fairy princes and princesses, with harps of gold, palaces of light, dark
woods filled with mysterious, awesomely-fascinating birds and animals, a
sea of blackness, a garden of delight, and all the thrilling retinue of giants,
magicians, and lovely maidens, who people the wonder- world of blue-eyed
little girls like Lulu. Such a book makes one want to be six again."
The Sydney Mornhuj Herald says : — "This charming production pro-
mises to be the book of the year, for no one can look at its exquisite pages
without hungering to possess a copy. Indeed, the book is perhaps the
most ambitious effort of an Australian house by Australian men for Aus-
tralian children.''
" STATION BOOK=KEEPING," by F E Vigars.
Price— Cloth, 3/6 ; Paper, 2/6.
PRESS EXTRACT.
The Australasian s^ys : — " The work gives a clear and precise des-
cription of the manner in which station accounts should be kept, and it
will be found quite as useful to the farmer as to the Pastoralist. Many
farmers do not keep accounts of their business, from a want of knowledge
of how to set about the work. This little book will supply the required
information, and by a careful perusal of it any person of ordinary intel-
ligence will be able to carry on his work in a business-like manner."
"XXth CENTURY COOKERY AND HOME
DECORATION," by Mrs. F. Aronson ("Thalia," of the
Sydney Mail). This is the most thoroughly comprehensive Aus-
tralian Cookery Book ever offered to the Australian public. Price
4/6.
A D V E R T I S E M E N T .
317
William Brooks & Co., Printers Publlshers sta ioflers
17 Castlereagh=st., Sydney,
Forms for Pastoralists, Squatters, Auctioneers, Stock & Station Agents, &c.
Per
Each. Do/,
s. rl. 8. d.
Lien on Crops 03 1 8
Lien on Wool 03 18
List of Cheques Drawn for Wages or
Piece-work 03 20
List of Cheques Drawn which are not
for Wages or Piece-work ... ... 0 3
Return of Work done by Contract ... 0 3
„ Wages 04
„ Cash Received and Paid ... 0 4
„ Stores 0 4
„ Cheques Drawn 0 4
Stock ... 0 «
„ Goods Bought and Sold ... 0 4
Shearing Agreements 0 3
Generally Useful Hand Agreement —
No. 1 (Weekly Wage, with Cook
and Rations) 0 3
Generally Useful Hand Agreement-
No. 2 (Daily Wage, with Cook and
Rations) 03 20
Generally Useful Hand Agreement—
J*o. 3 (Weekly or Daily Wage,
Without. Cook or Rations) 0 3
Rouseabout Agreement 0 3
Stock Mortgage 1 0
Wheat on t hares Agreement 1 0
Will Forms 0 6
Statutory Dec'aration ... *. ... 0 2
Bill of Sale (Conditional) 1 0
Apprentices' Indentures 0 6
Conditions and Terms of Sale (Private
Contract) ». 06 36
2 0
2 0
2 6
2 6
2 6
'2 ti
5 0
2 6
2 6
3 0
Each,
s. d.
... 0 1
... 0
0 2
02 10
03 26
03 2 t
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A US. SHEEP and WOOL, by A. Hawkesworth, 8 2
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December, 1899 „ 4 9
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illustrations by D. H. Souter ... ... i o
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